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LIBRARY
OP THE
Theological Seminary,
PRINCETON, N. J.
<^«*^. D..- --B^-V?
Shelf, Sec; , I
Book, t^o^^
■• ' • '«ij«»^,
/^/4
^ H E
P I R I T
OF
GENERAL HISTORY,
IN A
Series of JLeSJures^
FROM THS
EIGHTH, TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY |
WHEREIN IS GIVEN A YIIW OF
THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY,
119
MANNERS AND LEGISLATION,
During that Period.
BY TilE REVEREND GEORGE THOMSON. '
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The Second Edition, corrected hy the Author*
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LONDON:
PRINTED FOR B. LAW AND SON, AND
F. JOLLIE, CARLISLE*
1793.
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THE
S P I R I T
O F
GENERAL HISTORY, ^c.
PRELIMINARY LECTURE.
The Ufe and 'Advantages of Hiftory .-—^How it
JJjould be Ji tidied, — The Hijiory of modern Na-^
tions more ufefuly than that of the ancient
World. — Knowledge of the lattery neceffary to
the Study of the former. — Sketch of ihe Hijiory
of ancient Nations y i^c,
^ I ^HE hiftory of mankind, is an inexhauftible
-*■ fource of rational entertainment, and ufe-
fui inflrudlion. The rife, progrefs and decline
of nations, with the caufes which produced
them ; the advances of fociety from barbarifm
to civilization, from rude and favage, to gentle
and refined manners ; the eflablifhment of laws
and liberty, or of defpotifm and flavery ; the
A 2 pernicious
(4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. t
«
pernicious effedls of vice, and the happy confe-
quences of \irtue; thefe, fo very interefting to
thofe who wifh, by a proper condud: to be ufe-
ful in life, are placed by the Hiftorian full in
our view.
A defire to emerge from ignorance, and to
enlarge the fphere of his knowledge, by an ac-
quaintance with what he does not know, is
natural toman. Hiftory gratifies this defire:
fo that, whether curiofity, or a real thirft for
knowledge, excites us to perufe the hiftory of
pafl tranfaclions, the mind cannot fail to receive
improvement and pleafure. However, there
is this difference between one who reads hiftory
merely to gratify curiofity, and another who
reads it for inftrudlion ; that the former does-
indeed receive pleafure in fuch gratification,
but not that knowledge which might be obtain-
ed to inform and rectify the mind ; whereas the
latter, by being inftructed, enjoys a permanent
delight, and treafures up in his memory, juft
maxims for the right condud: of life. We may
read many pages in a day, run over the tranf-
actions of a century, inlefs time than we could
travel a mile,boalt that we have devoured many
volumes, and yet be totally unacquainted with
men and things. The man who can mention
by name, the nations which have appeared and
aded with applaufe on the theatre of this world-
can
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (5)
can afcertain the date of their rife, the periods
iOf their progrefs and decline, the conquerors,
who have been the fcourges of mankind, and
filled the earth with the calamities of war, may
be admired for his hiftorical knowledge : but,
to know the rife and fall of nations, the exploits
of warriors, when fuch or fuch a battle was
fought, by whom gained, and the number of
the wounded and flain in each army; when
the/ renowned cities of antiquity were founded,
by whom taken and deftroyed • to be able to
give an account of thefe things, and be ignorant
of the caufes which produced them, or not to
think them worth attending to, is to read hiflory
to no good purpofe.
The philofopher and politician read the me-
moirs of nations, and of individuals with a dif-
ferent view : they cultivate an acquaintance with
the hiftory of mankind, not to gratify an idle
curiofity, but to enrich the mind with ufeful
knowledge. Scenes of violence give them dif-
guft rather than pleafure; but to know that
thefe were the effeds of ambition, of pride and
revenge, working in the mind, inftruds them
in the knowledge of the human heart. A tran-
sient glance at the defcription of a battle, or a
fiege, is enough to them, whilft they carefully
attend the hiftorian in his delineation of the
charadlers of nations and eminent men; in his
A 3 invef^
(6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
invefligation of the caufes of events ; in his tra-
cing the beginning of laws and government, of
civilization, manners, arts and fciences.
As the knowledge of men and things, affords
an inftrudiive entertainment to the rational
mind ; and as none would wifh to continue in
the ignorance of his infant ftate, fo various me-
thods have been employed at different times,
and by different perfons, to convey ufeful
knowledge to mankind ; ahd of thefe, one of the
moil important, is History. « Hiftory, (to
"quote the words of an elegant writer) that
*' faithful and true witnefs has been unfolded
to us ; ages and generations lapfed and gone,
pafs in review, and leffons of infbruclion are
forcibly inculcated, by a fair and impartial
** difclofure of the effedts, which an adherence
" to redlitude and virtue, or a negled: of them,
** produced on the affairs of men. The pencil
** of hiftory has delineated, not only men in
" groups, but feledling diftinguiihed individu-
** als, has drawn them in their juft proportions,
*' and enlivening them with the colours of na-
" ture, has exhibited a collecflion of flriking
" portraits, for our entertainment and inftruc-
*' tion. In contemplating the charadlers of
*^ nations, or of eminent perfcns, we feem to
" walk in a large gallery of family pidures, and
*' take delight in comparing the various features
" of
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. fy)
" of the extenfive kindred, as they refemble or
" differ from one another,-* we find in them,
^' though long ago, carried down the tide of
*' time, pleafing and inftrudive companions, "f
Were I to give a definition of hiflory, it
"would be in the words of an ancient hiftorian,
as quoted by a noble author ; ' Hiflory is phi-
lofophy, teaching hy examples, how to condud:
ourfelves in every lituation of private or public
life ;'X or, hiftory is a faithful reprefentation of
what has been adted on the great theatre of this
world, and a true defcription of the charadiers
of the adlors. According to this definition,
hiftory fliould be ftudied with a philofophical
turn of mind. We ihould habituate ourfelves
to a careful examination of the characters of
nations or individuals, as defcribed by the hif-
torian, and the chain of events he relates. By
a proper attention to this, we improve in the
mofk ufeful parts of knowledge, and in time
become qualified to fill the various departments
of life with propriety and ufefulnefs. In a word,
by carefully obferving, and retaining in mind,
the great revolutions, avhich, in the courfe of
providence, have taken place in nations, and
the progrefs offociety amidft thefe revolutions;
A 4 by
Ovid's Met. Lib. 2.
f See Hunter's Biograph. Left,
t Dion. Hal. quoted by BolI» in Left, on Hill.
(8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
by a jufl inveftigation of the many, and even
oppolite caufes, which often concur in produ-
cnig one efiedl:, or one caufe, from which fome-
timcs many eftedls follow ; by a near obferva-
tioh of the characters of thofe, who have made
a figure in fociety, what were their views in
adins in fuch or fuch a manner, and the nature
of the paflions, which led them on to avflion ;
it is by purfuing fome fuch method like this,
that any real advantage can be obtained from
the labours of the hiftorian.
Though hiftory may be confidered as the
fchool for princes, and for thofe diftinguiihed
characlers, whom providence has deftined to be
at the head of nations ; yet thofe who tread the
private walks of life, fhould, would they wifhto
be ufeful m their ftation, not negled: to replen-
ifh their minds with the knowledge which may
be obtained from this fource. For, were an
acquaintance with the hiftory of paft ages, and
with the lives of thofe who have gone before us,
attended with only this advantage, that wifdom
may be learned by the example and experience
of others; it would indeed be a very import-
ant One. We muftoft,en find ourfelves, efpeci-
ally when beginning to acl: in the world, in
fituations new to us, and very different from
any thing we have experienced before : thofe,
therefore, who are uninformed how others have
aded
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (9}
adled in fuch or fuch circumftances, muft pof-
fefs uncommon judgment and caution, not to be
liable to fall into errors, and fometimes into
fuch errors, as may have an unhappy influence
upon their future condudl.
There are examples upon record to prove,
that the ftudy of hiftory may fupply the want of
experience. Cicero informs us, " That Lu-
cullus, a famous Roman, being appointed gene-
ral, to carry on the war againft Mithridates,
king of Pontus, went from Rome ignorant of
the military art ; yet by fpending the time of
his journey and voyage, partly by putting quef-
tions to men of knowledge, and partly by read-
ing the hiftory of former adlions, he came into
Afii with fuch a character, and performed fuch
exploits, as obliged the great Mithridates to
confefs, that he had found him to be an abler
general, than any of thofe concerning whom he
had read."
" A man (fays Frederick the Great) who does
not think he dropt from the clouds, or does not
date the origin of the world from the day of his
nativity, ought naturally to be curious of being
acquainted with the tranfadtions of different ages
and countries. If he is indifferent to the fate of
fo many other nations, that have been the fport
£)f fortune, he will be pleafed, at lead, with the
Jliftory of the country he lives in, and with the
relation
(10) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
relation of events, in which his anceflors were
concerned.* To which let me add, that. if the
hifiory of remote ages and diftant nations, is but
little interefting to him, that of times near his
own, and of nations on the fame continent ; na-
tions with which his own is connected, fliould
artrad his notice. But, the great improvements
and extenfion of commerce, by uniting the mofl
diftant nations, render an acquaintance with the
cufloms, and manners of every people, and with
the prcdudions of almoft every part of the
w^orld, highly necefTary and beneficial to the
inhabitants of Britain. '' If an Englifhman,
(continues the royal author) has no knowledge
of thofe kings that filled the throne of Perfia ;
if his memory is embarralTed with that infinite
number of popes that ruled the church, vv^e are
ready to excufe him ; but we fliall hardly have
the fame indulgence for him, if he is a ftranger
to the origin of parliaments, to the cufloms of
his country, and to the different lines of kings
who have reigned in England.**
As the hiftory of our native country is more
interefting to us, than that of other nations, fo
is alfo a knowledge of the modern hifiory of the
world, (efpecially of Europe) of much greater
importance, than that of ancient times. In
little
* Mem. Brands
Lect. L MODERN HISTORY. (ii)
little more than tv/o centuries ago, thofe fur-
prifingly great revolutions happened, which
have efFe&d an almofl univerfal change in the
nations of modern Europe : a falutary change of
the fentiments of Chriflians ; a change which
has given a different tone to national manners,
produced juft notions of the rights and liberties
of men, and great improvements in commerce
and manufac1;ures. But modern hiftory is llu-
died with much greater advantage, v/hen we
have an acquaintance withthe (late of mankind
in early times. Our knowledge of the revolu-
tions which affeded the anciT^nt kingdoms of the
world, of the governments and laws, cuftoms
and m.anners which prevailed in the early pe-
riods of fociety, efpecially among the Greeks and
Romans, (like the knowledge of one branch of
fcience being preparatory to another) renders
the ftudy of the hiflory of mo4ern fociety more
eafy, pleafant and improving. Such knowledge
prepares the mind to receive infbrudiion from
reading, either the modern general hiftory of
all nations, or that of any particular nation in
the detail. For, ancient and modern hiflory
fhew us, that men in all ages and countries,
have been, and are much the fame ; that tlie
fame caufes, have for the mod part, uniformly
produced the fame effecfts, to the advantage,
or difadvantage of individuals or nations. A
general
(1 2 ) MODERN HISTORY. Lec t. L
general idea of hillory, opens and expands the
mind, removes prejudices, and convinces us,
how ill-founded and extravagant thofe notions
are, which mofl people entertain of the fuperior
grandeur, wifdom, and refinement of their own
times, and of the country in which they live.
Having faid thus much of hiftory, and of the
advantages which may be derived from the pro-
per ftudy of it ; let me caution my readers a-
gainfl a too implicit faith in all that a hiflorian
relates ; more efpecially, when he endeavours
to drefs what is probably fabulous in the garb
of truth, and would make ficlion pafs for reality.
Where the hiftorian has no authentic monu-
ments and records of the early periods of foci-
ety to direct: him in his refearches, he mull
depend upon uncertain tradition, or give his
own conjedlures inltead of true hifbory. There
is fuch a thing as national vanity. A predelic-
tion for one's country is a prejudice common
to all men ; hence we are fond to draw our an-
ceftors in bright colours, give a remote anti-
quity to our country, and reprefent its ancient
inhabitants, as wife, valiant, learned and po-
lifhed. But it is an undeniable truth, that there
was a time, when the anceilors of the modern
nations of Europe, who at prefent boaft of the
perfecftion of their wiidom, legiOation, and re-
fined manners, were only a gang of banditti,
altogether
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (13)
altogether barbarous in their difpofitions, and
• uncivilized in their manners.
As we lliould be cautious how we receive for
truth thofe parts of hiftory which are colledled
from the rubbiih of fidtion, and unfupported by
authentic records ; fo neither fhould we adopt
every fentiment and refledion of the hiftorian;,
as unprejudiced and juft. ^ We, who fee only
* the outfide of things, (it not being our prero-
* gative to examine the heart) mufl of ne-
* ceflity infer the principles of adion from the
* actions themfeives ; and yet, there is no rule
* of judgment more erroneous ; becaufe experi-
* ence alTures us, that many, perhaps the greater
* part of our actions, are not the refult of defign^
* are not founded on principle, but are produ-
* ced by a concourfe of incidents we could not
* forefee, and proceed from pallions kindled at
* the moment. 't
Moreover, when we fit down to write, whe-
ther of ages pad, or of the prefent, it is with a
bias upon the mind, which we naturally endea-
vour to communicate to our readers. All men
have their favourite periods, caufes and charac-
ters, which of courfe, they flrive to embelliih,
fupport, and recommend. They, on the other
hand, are equally fubjedt to antipathies ; under
• the
f Letters to a Young Nobleman.
(I.) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
the influence of which, they as readily ftrive to
depreciate, to expofe, and to cenfure what they
diilike. The partizans of fadlion think juftice,
virtue, knowledge, anci good fenfe, centre in
their party ; but will fcarcely allow any of thefe
good qualities to belong to thofe of a different
one. As men write and fpeak, fo they read and
hear, under the influence of 'pafiion and preju-
dice. When the hiftorian's opinions coincide
with our own, we allow him to be right, when
they differ, we, without fcruple, pronounce
him miliaken. It is indeed true, pre-polTefllons
we will always have ; it is impofllble to divefh
the mind of prejudice,- but when thefe are on
the fide of virtue and truth, the fentiments and
refledlions of an hiftorian, will be no farther"
afTented to by us, than as they appear to be
virtuous and true.
I would, in thefe ledlures, endeavour to en-
tertain and inflrud: my readers, with what I
chufe to call, (if the expreflion is proper) the
fpirit of modern hiftory, from the time of
Charlemagne, emperor of the wefl, near the
end of the year of our Lord eight hundred,
(almoft contemporary with whom was Egbert,
King of the Weft Saxons, who united the petty
kingdoms of the Heptarchy) to the beginning
of the prefent century. To give an account of
vidlories won or loft, of cities befieged and taken,
of
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (15)
of the names and number of thofe that fell
in fuch or fuch a battle, does not enter into
my plan. Minute details of this kind may be
acceptable to the favage difpolition, and un-
feeling temper of a vulgar mind ; but can, I am
fure, 'afford no pleafure to the feelings of a hu-
mane and tender heart ; no profit to thofe who
read for inftrudlion. I would rather mark the
progrefs of civilization, of governments and
laws, of commerce, arts and fciences ; chiefly,
the feveral changes in the manners of mankind,
from their rude and barbarous ftate, to the re-
fined polifh they have now received.
An effect cannot be produced without a
caufe. Has the feudal fyftem given place to a
more free and unreftrained pofTelTion of pro-
perty ? Are the rights of mankind much better
known and attended to than they once were ?
Are governments and laws more propitious to
civil and religious liberty, than they were in
barbarous ages ? And has the manners of foci-
cty been progreflive in improvement ? Thefc
changes are indeed owing to the natural ad-
vances of fociety from ignorance to knowledge,
and from barbarifm to civilization. But thofe
changes could not have been, had not caufes
cxifted to produce them. Thefe caufes fhall be
inveftigated, and the following truth evinced,
that
(i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
that when fociety is ripe for a change, there h
a caufe at hand to bring it about.
The hiftory of mankind, from the beginning
of the world to the prefent time, is a chain
confining of many links. To ftrike off one,
would be to difcompofe the whole. There
is an intimate connection between ancient and
modern hiflory. Thefe two parts make up the
whole And though any part of hiftory may
be the fubje6l of our ftudy, yet unlefs we vievr
it in connection with the other parts, it cannot
be ftudied with that advantage, it otherwife
would. I Ihall, in the fequel of this ledure>
point out the conned:ion, by giving fuch a
fketch of the hiftory of ancient nations, as may-
be fufficient to anfwer this purpofe.
The Bible affords the only true account of
the origin of the human race. Mofes informs
us, in the book of Genefts, that there was a
time, when all the inhabitants of this world
were only one man and one woman. That the
poftdeluvian generations of our fpecies de-
fcended from Noah's three fons : and that im-
mediately upon the confuiion of tongues, meil
feparated from the plains of Shinar; thofe of
the fame language continuing together, and
making choice of thofe parts of the earth, as
l^eft fuited their way of life,
Hiftory
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (17)
Hiilory and tradition agree in reprefenting
men to have been in a favagre flate. That there
Was a time, when fcattered over this earthj they
had no bond of conne(5lion, but every indivi-
dual was furrounded with wants and danglers,
which depended folely upon himfelf to provide
for, and guard againft. Laws, governments,
and arts were then unknovv'n. The ftronger
took from the weaker the food he had pro*
cured from the chace, or by fiiliing; and he
could not have redrefs for the injury done him.
The American tribes, the Hottentots, and the
natives of New-Holland, are in a ftate nearly
refembling this defcription. A flate mofl
humiliating to mankind*
But as man is naturally focial, having fome-
thincr inherent in him which attradls him to
his kind, this liate muft have been of fhort
duration. For, (as an ingenious author obferves)
** The earlieft and latefl accounts collected from
every quarter of the earth, reprefent mankind
as alFembled in troops and companies ; and the
individual not alone, fhunnino- thofe of his
fpecies, but always joined by aiTcclion to one
party, while he is poflibly oppofed to another ;
employed in the exercifc of recolleilion and
foreiight; inclined to communicate his own
fentiments, and to be made acquainted with
B thofc
(18) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
thofe of others."! A propenfity to alTocfate
with men like himfelf, a kn^e of danger, and a
defire of afliftance and protedticn ; love for a fe-
male to whom he conneds himfelf, and chiU
dren, the fruit of that conne6tion, impel him to
form a more extended union with his fpecies^
The fame wants, and a perfuafion of that mu-
tual affiftance, which can be given and recei-
ved, unite individuals in fociety ; and the more
fenfible they are of the advantages of fuch an
union, the more defirous they are to make it
clofe and extenfive. The firft eiTays towards
fuch focial conned:ions and engagements, by
which men bound themfelves one to ano-
ther, were conform.able to the knowledge and
feeling of their then fituation. Laws to re-
train violence, government and regular police
were unknown in the firft ftages of fociety.
Then, in a certain fenfe, (if I may be allowed
a fcripture exprefTion) " every one did what
was right in his own eyes." But without en^
gagements, and cuftoms to fupply the want of
laws; without fome kind of government, even
hoards of favages could not fublift.
To unite fmall> fcattered and independent
tribes into one large fociety, to ered: kingdoms,
build cities, and civilize m.en, is the work of
time. Eefore this could be accompliflied, an
unioa
X Fcrgufon's EfTay, Civ. Soc,
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (19)
union between the fexes by marriage, muft have
been eflablifhedj the neceifary and ufeful arts of
life invented, and fome progrefs made in agri-
culture. Men who live by hunting and filhing,
or who are employed in the feeding of cattle,
iove to roam from place to place. Free and
unconfined, they ftay no longer upon a fpot of
ground, then till they have exhaufled the game,
or their cattle have eaten up the palturage. In
this llage of fociety, every tribe is a band of
robbers, who plunder and carry off their
neighbour's cattle wherever they can find them.
Homer's heroes were men of this complexion,
who, to revenge the rape of Helen, made a prey
of the cattle, the flaves, and the v/omen, w^hich
were found in the nations around them. ' A
* Tartar on his horfe, is an animal of prey, who
' only inquires where cattle are to be found, and
* how. far he muft go to polTefs them. The
* monk who had fallen under the difpleafure
* of Mango Chan made his peace, by promiiing,
* thai: the Pope, and the Chriftian Princes,
* fhould make a furrender of all their herds."*
A fpirit of plunder brought our ancedors from
the forefrs of Germany into the fertile provin-
ces of Italy ; and the flime fpirit, more perhaps,
than their refpccl for the crofs, led them m
Alia to fliare in the fpoils of the eaflern and
Saracen empires.
B 2 As
* Ruhruquisf quoted by Fergufon.
(20) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
As the Egyptians were, very probably, the
firft civilized nation, among whom laws and
government took their rife, I would, in ihewing
the connection of ancient with modern hiflory,
begin with them.
Egyptians. — The Egyptians were a nation, as
early as the time of Abraham, who lived in the
lixth century after the deluge. Commerce and
agriculture had made confiderable progrefs in
that country, in the days of Jacob, and Jofeph ;
the latter of whom,' as appears from fcripturc,
effected an important alteration in Egypt, by
changing the nature of landed property, and by
an increafe of the kingly power. Egypt is
happily iituated as to climate, and the annual
overflowing of the Nile, fupplies the want of
rain, and fertilizes the ground. f The caufe of
the inundations of the Nile, which was un-
known to the ancients, is now found to be the
rains, which fall in great abundance in Upper
Ethiopia, during our lummer m.onths, and a
part of autumn. Egypt exhibits tvvo beautiful
appearances in the courfe of one year. In our
fummcr, the country appears one immenfe flicet
of water, with cities, towns, and villages riling
above the furface ,• in our winter, it is a beautiful
and extenfive plain, covered v» ith cattle, corn
and hufbandmen ; \\ ith trees, fhrubs and flovvcrs,
perfuming the air with the moft fragrant fmell.
The
t See Ovid. Met. Lib. i. Tab. 7. Vide Eruce's Travelg.
Lect. L MODERN HISTORY. (21)
The ancient chronology of Egypt is evident-
ly fabulous. The Egyptian prielts, cither from
ignorance or vanity, gave v/rong information
to thofe who applied to them. According to
them, the reigns of their ancient 'kings were by
much too long; they have reprefented thofe
dynaflies, which were only colateral, as paffing
in fuccefTion. However, this we know from
what is faid of the Egyptians in the Bible, that
their kings were named Pharaoh for feveral
centuries. Many fables are related of Ifis,
Oiiris, and Trifmegiftus or Mercury, whom
the Egyptians worlhipped as gods. Mcnes,
whom Mofes calls Mizraim, the grandfon of
Noah, is faid to have been the firfl: king of
Egypt, (that country having been very proba-
bly firfl peopled by one of the defcendants of
Ham,) and that in the interval betv/een him and
Sefoftris, who was a great conqueror, happened
the conquefc of Egypt by the flicpherd kings,
fuppofed to have been the Cannanires that fled
from Joiliua. Hiftorians inform us, that there
was in the palace of Ofymandias an Egyptian
king, a library, thought to be the moft ancient
in the world, and upon the gate which led to it,
were thefe words, " The phyfic of the foul."
But by whom that library was colleclcd, what
were the manufcripts which compofed it, we are
not informed. It is not known by whom the
B 3 . lake
(22) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
lake Moeris, dug to receive the waters of the
Nile, was made; nor what king or kings reign-
ed in Egypt, when the pyramids v.ere built.
But thofc ftupenduous edifices, whether they
-were intended for fepulchral monuments, or for
fome other purpofe religious or civil, are a lad-
ing proof of the fuperftition and vanity of the
ancient Egyptians. Travellers who have viiited
Egypt, and given an account of the antiquities
of that country, (efpeciallya minute defcripticn
of the pyramids) are divided in opinion as to
the kind of materials of which they are com-
pofed. A late celebrated traveller thinks, the
pyramids were originally a mafs of rock cut into
their prefent form by human labour and art.*
This conjecture is, perhaps, m.ore fanciful than
folid. It is miore probable, that the pyramids
were built of materials calcined by fire : perhaps
the earth dug out of the lake M(sris.
That part of the hiftory of Egypt, which
Herodotus has given us, though it may be partly
true, is not wholly to be depended on, becaufc
not drawn from authentic records, nor from his
own knowledge and obfervation, but from in-
formation given him by the priefts of that
country. For inftance, that grave but credul-
pus hidorian, tells us an abfurd ftory of Pfam-
meticus
* Vide Bruce's Travels,
LxcT. I. MODERN HISTORY. (:^3)
mcticas one of the kings of Egypt, who, being
dcfirous to know what nation was the moft an-
cient ordered two children to be nurfed in fuch a
manner, that it ihould be impoflible for them to
learn words by imitation. At two years of age
both at once cried out bee cos ^ which in the Phry-
gian tongue, fignifies bread. From that time
the Egyptians yielded the claim of antiquity to
the Phrygians. * If the flory were true, it is
probable they imitated the hae of the flieep in
t-he firfl word they articulated. Children learn
words by imitation : they have the power of
.imitation, and it is by repeated ad:s of it, that
ihcy acquire the habit of fpeech. '' Goropius
*' Becanus, (fiys a latehiflorianj from the fame
** ftory, endeavours to prove, that high Dutch
**• was the ^rft language, becaufe becker in that
*^ language fignifies a baker, §
In the reign of Pfammeticus (about 670 years
before Chrifl,) the hiftory oi Egypt was diveft-
cd of obfcurity and fable. That king encou-
raged commerce, by opening the ports of Egypt
to foreigners. The Egyptians had already made
confiderable progrefs in agriculture. But com-
merce tends more than agriculture to increafc
the wealth of nations, fince without it, the fur-
plus of the commodities of a country would be
of little value to the inhabitants. His fon Necho
B4 (who
* Herodotus. J Abbe Milot.
(24) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
(who was probably that Necho mentioned in
fcripturc, by whom Jofiah was killed,! and who
had alfo the name of Pharaoh j attempted to cut
a canal between the Nile and the Red-fea, for
the convenience of commerce; but abandoned
thedelign, after having loft many men in the at-
tempt. There is a feafon for every thing. The
art of cutting canals has been referved to be one
or the many improvements of modern times.
Amaiis dethroned Apries, Necho's fon. This
king is celebrated, for having promoted com-
merce, and invited learned men into his king-
dom. Among thofe who vilited his court, were
Pythagoras and Solon. The Athenian wanted
to be inftrudled in the Egyptian laws, and the
Samian fage travelled to learn wifdom. Amafis
was fucceeded by his fon Pfammeticus, in whofe
reign, Egypt was conquered by Cambyfes, the
fon of Cyrus, who made it a province of the
Perfian empire. Egypt continued under the
dominion of the Perlians, till Alexander over-
threw that monarchy. After his death (when
his hereditary and acquired dominions were
divided among his generals) it fell to the fliare
of Ptolemy i^agus, whofe pofteiity reigned in
Egypt, till the time of Auguftus, Vvho having
defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the
battl<^
J 2 Kings, chap, xxiii
Lect. L modern history. (25)
battle of Allium, (31 years before Chrift) made
it a Roman province.
Medes and Ferjians. — The Medes and Perfians
(I would pafs by the hiilory of other Aliatic na-
tions) were dillindl kingdoms^ but united under
Cyrus. They (particularly the Perfians) were
very ancient. Mention is made of Elam or
Perlia, as early as the days of Abraham; but its
power and fplendour were not confpicuous till
the days of Cyrus. That great man was educated
according to the ftridt and excellent manner of
the Perfians, who paid the greatefb attention to
the education of their children. He polFelTed
thofe natural and acquired qualifications, which
render a perfon fit to govern ; and, had he not in-
dulged a too ftrong propenfity forconquefl, might
have made his fubjedls truly profperous and
happy. It is not the king who grafps at an
extenfive territory, that is a blefling to his peo-
ple ; but he who cultivates the arts of peace,
eflabliflies good laws, and makes his fubjeds
honeft and indufcrious.
The information given us of Cyrus hy pro-
fane authors, leaves the mind in uncertainty.
Ctefias, Herodotus, and Xenophon, almoft con-
temporary hiflorians, give contradidory ac-
counts of him. Ail wx know of him is, that he
was the fon of Cambyfes, king of Perfia, and
of Mandane, the daughter of Aiiyages^ king of
the
(26) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
the Medcs ; that he fucceeded to the crown of
both kingdoms ; that he defeated the Babylo-
nians, took Babylon, and put an end to, that
monarchy ; that he permitted the Jews, by a
decree, to return to their native land, and that,
by his conquefts, he laid the foundation of a
great empire. Of the real charader of Cyrus,
we may fay, he underftood the art of war, and
made improvements in the arms and difcipline
of his foldiers : he was ambitious and thirfted
for power, which impelled him to make war on
his neighbours, and to feize, by force of arms,
what he had no jufl title to : he was the fcourge
and deflrdyer of the human race, as all con-
querors, who wanted to extend their dominion
by force of arms, have been.
Cambyfes, his fon and fuccelTor was a com-
pound of folly and madnefs, a monfler in human
fliape; he was not only unfit to reign; but did
not even deferve to live. Nor were any of the
kings that fat on the throne of Perfia, poflerior
to Cyrus, attentive to fecure and promote the
happinefs of their fubjedis. Intoxicated with
an unjuft idea of power, alfeding more than a
royal magnificence, living in all the fplendour of
Afiatic luxury, they indulged, without reflraint,
the moft abominable pafTions. As polygamy
was allowed among the Perfians, their kings
carried it to the mofl wicked excefs : they not
only
Lect. T. modern history. (27)
only had many wives, but even married their
own iiilers : they were guilty of incefl, would
have divine honour? paid them, and with the
m.oil wanton cruelty, fported with the lives of
their fabjedLS. Whilil: they indulged themfelves
in effeminate and vicious pleafurc, the fatrapae,
or viceroys, who had the care of the provinces,
likefome modern governors, pillaged the inha-
bitants to enrich themfelves ; and like them too,
were themfelves pillaged, when they returned
to court. The Perlians were often at war with
the Greeks, but could make no imprefiion on
them, as long; as 'thev continued virtuous and
united. Men under the influence of virtuous
principles, and animated with a love of liberty,
are always an overmatch for thofe who would
cnflave them. Darius Codomannus, whom
Alexander the Great conquered, feems to have
been one of the befi: of the Periian kings, and
deferving of a better fate, than to be deprived
of his crown and life. But the duration of that,
empire^was, in the courfe of providence, come
to an end ,- therefore, the ram, which Daniel faw
in the vifion, pufhing weftward, and northward,
and fouthward, could not ftand before the he-
goat. Alexander, the fon of Philip of Mace-
don, fired with ambition for glory, and delirous
to fulfil his father's intention, of making war
upon Perlia, (but the inflrument of providence,
though
(28) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
though he did not know it,) marched into Alia
with a fmall, but brave army; and 331 years
before Chrifl:, after two fucccfsful battles, en-
tirely fubverted that unweildy monarchy, in lefs
time than a foreign enemy could, in thefe days,
make himfelf mafler of one county in this ifland.
The Perlian empire fubfifted about 209 years.
Ofthehiftoryofancient nations, that of Greece
and Rome is mod interefling. With it, the
moderns fliould be properly acquainted. Here
we have light todirecl us in our inquiries, which
the hifrory of the reft of the ancient world, (that
of the Jews excepted) does not afford. The
hiftory of the Greeks and Romans, prefcnts us
with true heroes and patriots ; with celebrated
philofophers, wife legifiators and flatefmen;
with men of the moft exalted genius in the arts
and fciences. In reading their hiftory, we be-
hold and admire the noble efforts of liberty, and
the great atchievments, which men, fired with
an ardent love of their country, have performed.
And while we read and admire, we catch the
kindred fiame.
Greeks, — The ancient Greeks were like other
barbarians, favage in their way of living, rude
and uncultivated in their manners ; without laws
and government. A colony from Egypt, was
the firil: means which contributed to their civili-
zation. The leaders of that colony, were thought
by
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (29)
by the favage inhabitants of Greece,/to be fome-
thing more than human : when dead, they were
deified and worfhipped as gods. Cecrops, an
Egyptian, founded Athens, and by the intro-
duction of laws and marriage, civilized the fa-
vages. He eftablifhed the council of Areopagus,
(about 1532 year* before Chrifl:) a court of juf-
tice by whom caufes were tried, and of whom
it is faid, that they never pafled an unjuft fen^
tence.
Danaus another Egyptian, and Cadmus n
Phoenician brought arts into Greece. They
taught the Greeks to cultivate the vine, to melt
and work metals, and what was much more
valuable, to write the alphabet. Triptolemu*
inftruclcd them in agriculture.
The petty frates of Greece, fenlible , of the
advantages of connection, formed an union,
limilar to that of the flates of Holland. Tv/elvc
ftates fent twice a-year twelve deputies to Ther-
mopylae. That national congrefs was called the
council of the Amphydtons, and became cele-
brated in Greece.
The Theban and Trojan wars ; the expedition
of the A.rgonauts ; (fo called from the fliip Argo
in which they failed) the cxpulfion and return
of the Heraclida*, and the laws compofed by
Minos, king of Crete, happened during the dark
periods of Greece. Thofc ages v/cre barbarous,
and
(30) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
and the hiflory of them, is fo blended with fable,
that it is impolTible to come at the truth. A
true knowledge of the manners and cufioms of
men in the firft llages of fociety, is not to be
obtained from uninformed hiflorians; but from
modern travellers and navigators, who having
minutely obfcrved thofe nations that are itill in
a ftate of barbarifm, wc may juRly conclude
from their information, that the nations of an-
tiquity were once, what the Tartar and Indian
are now ; natural Iv rude, unimproved by culture
and education.
But the Greeks by degrees became civilized,
acquired juft notions of liberty, and while vir-
tuous and unambitious of power, moil zealous
defenders of it. Sparta and Athens were at the
head of the Greek republics ; the one famed for
the feverity of her manners ,• the other more
refined, eloquent, and a greater proficient in the
arts and fciences. Lycurgus of Sparta, and
Solon of Athens, compofcd each a body of lawg
for their countrymen : to keep alive and increafe
in the Spartans, a love of liberty and virtue, of
military glory and a contempt of death, were
what Lycurgus aimed at in his laws. The lavvS
of Solon were Icfs perfect, but fuch as he thought
mod fuitable to the difpoiition and free manners
of the Athenians.
The
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (3 r }
, The Greeks were happy as long as they were
virtuous. Love for their country, and an ab-
horrence of flavery, enabled them to perform
the mofl: heroic adlions. The battles of Mara-
thon and Salamis, are a proof, how much fu-
perior free men are to flaves. A handful of men
under the condudl of a Miltiades, a Themif-
tocles, and an Ariftides, defeated the numerous
armies and fleets of the mighty monarchs of
Perfia. When the Greeks loft their virtue, and
became fond oT power, they ceafed to be happy,
and became an eafy prey to their enemies.
Sparta and Athens had the fame views : each
wanted to be pofTeiTed of the fuperiority of
Greece: they quarrelled, turned their arms
againft each other, which at laft proved the ruin
of both. The kings of Perfia, when they found
they could not conquer them by force of arms,
went another way to work ; they bribed their
orators, fomented their animofities, and by
alTifting the weakeft, kept alive their quarrels.
Philip of Macedon^ an ambitious, politic and
warlike prince, quarrelled with the Greeks, de-
feated them in the battle of Cheronea, and de-
prived Greece of her liberties. From that time,
they no longer felt the glow, nor tailed the
fweets, of liberty. They were fubmiflive to
Alexander and his fuccelTors : for, though the
flame of liberty fometimes burfl out, yet it was
foon
(32) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
foon extinguifhed ; nor could they ever dif-
engage themfelvcs from the yoke laid upon
them. When the Roman arms carried con-
queft every where, they felt their force and
fubmitted* But Greece, though conquered,
enjoyed peace and liberty under the Roman
government,- {he cultivated the arts and fci-
ences. Athens was the fchool in which the
Romans perfedled their Itudies, and poliflied
their manners. Thus, the conquered Greeks
inflruded and refined the conquerors of the
world. From the fate of the Greeks, who be-
came a prey, firft to the Macedonians, and
then to the Romans, w^e fee the danger fmall
independent flate-s are in of being overpowered
and enflaved by more powerful and ambitious
neighbours; and that, when virtue and a jufl:
fenfc of liberty glow in the breaft, a handful of
m.en can make a fuccefsful Hand againfl: the
encroachments of a multitude ; but that the
reverfe is the cafe, when a nation does not fight
to be virtuous and free.
Romans, — The ancient Romans, fo celebra-
ted in hiflory, were, in the firft period of their
fociety, rude and barbarous. Romulus, the
founder of the Roman name and nation, was
the captain of a band of banditti, that lived by
plunder. His delign in building a city, very
probably was, to proted; him from his favagc
neighbours.
LixT. I. MODERN HISTORY, (23)
neighbours, and to make depredations on them
with the greater fecurity.* Numa, by ellab-
liHiing a body of laws, which he pretended
were did:ated to him by a divinity ; and, by
endeavouring to give them a ta(te for religion,
made the Romans lay afide fomething of their
former favage ferocity. But under their kings,
(who had the name without the autihority which
ihould be annexed to it) a period of 144 years,
and for a long time after confuls were eflabiilhed,
the Romans Ihewed that barbarous rulHcity fo
oppofite to the manners of a polifhed nation*
It w'as their intercourfe with Alia, and parti-
cularly with Greece, that gave them a tafbe for
civilization and refinement. But the Romans,
like other nations, more eafily imitated the
vices than the virtues of their more polilned
neighbours. Man is an imitative creature;
but from being blind to his true happinefs, or
from fome other caufe, he is more ealily indu-
ced to follow a vicious than a virtuous ex-
ample.
Of all the nations of antiquity, the Romans
were the mofl: warlike, and the bed acquainted
with the military art, as it was pradti fed in
early time's. They were all foldiers: in the
camp, as in a fchdol, they were, at a very early
period of life, inltru^fted in the ufe of arms^
J C and
* A. C. 753.
(3-4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
and in thofe military virtues which infure con-
quell. The Romans v/ere almoft always en-
gaged in war. From Romulus to Auguflus
Csefar, the temple of Janus, the emblem of
peace, was (if I miftake not) but twace Ihut ^
nor was there any refpite from hoftilities, du-
1*1 ng the reigns of the emperors. So that, what
with foreign wars, and what with domeftic
quarrels, the ancient Romans may be faid,
nevfjr to have tailed the fweets of peace. The
moll of the wars in which the Romans were
engtiged were unjufl, being undertaken to fa-
tiate their ambition and thirft of conqueft.
The nations of Italy yielded, one after another,
to the fuperior prowefs of their arms ; but they
could not lit down contented with this. They
carried their arms abroad, and the conquefl: of
one nation, but wheted their appetite for the
conquefl of another.-
No ancient nation, whofe hiflory has come
down to us, ever rofe to that pitch of grandeur
the Romans did. Providence had defiined
them the diminion of the world. The means
by which they rofe to fupciiority in the fcale of
nations, were a love of country and of liberty i
their preference of virtuous poverty to unjufl
riches ; a ilric^l adherence to frugality, juflicc,
and religion, and the mod excellent military
difcipline. The Romans, as long as they cul-
tivated thefe virtues, were invincible. To
them
Lect. I; modern history. {3s)
them every thing fubmitted ; but when the
contrary vices found a way to their hearts, their
grandeur, as a nation, began to decline, fo that
though vicflory attended them for a while, yet
the relaxation of the national fpirit ftill in-
creafed ; till at laft they became an eafy con-
quefl to a hardy race of northern barbarians.
The fate of one nation may be that of ano-
ther ; fimilar caufes produce fimilar effedts ;
and the different faces, which different fo-
cieties put on in fucceflion, are only a round of
the fame events. If the Romans attained to
extenfive empire by bravery, by temperance^
by an ardent love of country, of liberty, and of
truth ; if, when effeminacy and luxury got
poffeflion of their hearts ; if, when a regard to
private intereft and pleafure prevailed over that
of their country and freedom, they fell a prey to
the ambition and enterprifing genius of a Sylla,
of a Julius Casfar, and of an Ocfavius, 4ind at
laft were fwallowed up by incorrupt barbarians
from the banks of the Danube and Elbe : then
their fate may ferve as a light to warn others,
not to ftrike upon the fame rocks ; and lliould
infpire every one, efpecially men of characf?:er
and influence in any ccur.'try, to ftudy with at-
tention the remarkable changes of manners, of
legiflation and government, which are exhibit-
ed in hiftory: that, by juft reflec^lions upon
their caufes and confequences, they may be
C 2 enabled
(36) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
enabled to condud thenifelves {o, as to prevent
their own country from ever arriving at fuch a
flate, as has never faikd to prove the ruin of
others.
Continuation
Of the Preliminary Ledlure^
Rdiigmf, Legijlation, Governments, Manners ^ Arts^.
Sciences y ^c, of the Ancients,
nnHE religion, legiflation, and governments,
-^ of ancient nations; their cuftoms and
manners, the arts and fciences by which many
in early times have immortalh:ed their names
to pofierity, fhould particularly fix our atten^
tion when we read their hiftory; to become
acquainted with thefe things is the molt valu-
able information wc can obtain from the ftudy
of antiquity. Neither extenfive dominion nor
' renov/n in war, can render a nation truly great;
but, wife laws, a juft and mild government^
pure manners, and fuch a fenfe of religion, as
engages men to the right difcharge of the duties
of private and focial life. Arts and fciences
bemg the efforts of genius, can be brought to
no degree of pcrfedlion in the rude and uncivi-
lized periods of fociety; but arts and fciences
are cultivated to no good purpofe, when they
arc
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (37)
are not applied to promote the real advantage
of mankind.
Societies could not fubfift without laws and
government. Men were foon feniible that,
only anarchy and confuiion proceed from felf-
iih principles uncontrouled ; therefore, they
bound themfelves to each other by mutual en-
gagements, made laws, and fubmitted to fome
form of government, as foon as an union took
place. In the infancy of fcciety laws were
rude and imperfedt Length of time, cxtenfive
knowledge, and experience arc requifite to
bring them to perfetliiion ; and their energy is
ftrong or weak in proportion to the progrefs
civilization has made. Vvhilfl: a nation con-
tinues barbarous, the laws are but ill obeyed ,-
for, though the weak fubmit to them, the man
of power will not. Prompted by his pafTions,
and pofTeirmg the means of refinance, he breaks
through them as often as he thinks it to his
advantage fo to do : hence national happinefs
is found in the eftablifhment of jufb and e(|uit-
able lavv's, which treat all men alike, and pay no
regard to their accidental rank or iituation.
The mofl ancient form of government was
probably the patriarchal, /. e. the father, as the
head of a family, governed, and thofc who
lived under his infpe(5lion yielded him obedi-
ence ; but as many inconveniences attended it,
fb thefe would foon be felt. Quarrels between
C 3 families.
(2^) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
families, or clans, would arife ; thefe would be
decided by force, and diforder and calamity
would be the confequence. The experience of
thofe evils, would fuggefl" to men a remedy for
them, and the bed", in their opinion, would be
to refer their differences to the decifion of that
perfon among them, the moft refpecfted for his
age and wifdom. As fociety advanced, men
would unite for mutual defence, that they might,
by an union of flrength, the more eafily repel any
hoftile attack; and he who gave the moil iignal
proofs of fuperior courage, Vvould acquire the
greateft influence in the affociarion. When a
family, or tribe, became too numerous for the
place it occupied, the youth would be fent out
in quefb of new fettlements, and one would be
chofen to conduct the expedition. The leader
of the enterprife, if fuccefsful, would have the
chief direction in the partition of lands, in
making laws, and in fettling the form of go-
vernment ; but the companions of his toils and
vidlories, would not yield up their liberty to one,
fo as not to referve to themfelves, fome fliare in
the government. — They would ftill retain their
right of judging in thofe matters, Vvhich were to
be determined by the whole fociety.* The
tyranny of a defpot, whofe wijl is a law, was
for a long time unknown in the world.
Govtrnment'ajid laws of the Egyptians. — Govern-
ment and laws began in the eaft. Confiderable
progrefsj
* Vide Caefar de Bell Gal. Tacit, de Mor. Germ.
L^cT. h MODERN HISTORY. (39)
progrefs had been made by the eaflcrn nations,
in civilization and manners, before the inhabi-
tants of Europe had begun to emerge from bar-
barifm. Egypt, and other nations ofthceaft,
were governed by kings as early as the days of
Abraham Jofeph extended the authority of
the Egyptian kings, and diminiflied the liberty
of the people ; but the kings of Egypt were not
dcfpots : the laws to which they wer^ fubjeded,
regulated the manner in which they were to
govern : the virtues the king ihould pradtice,
the vices he iliould avoid, weredefcribed by the.
■chief pried, every morning, in a difcourfe, to
which he was obliged to attend. When the
reigning prince died, the people, according to a
cuftom eflabliihed in Egypt, fat as judges upon
his dead body: any might accufe him; if the
accufations brought againil him were proved,
his dead body was deprived of the rites of bu-
rial ; if his condud:, upon the whole, was found
to have been fuch as a kind's fliould be, he re-
ceived an honourable and magnificent funeral.
The fear of being difgracefuUy treated, when
dead, made their kings pay a flridt regard to the
duties of their office. So ftrongly convinced
were the Egyptians, that the happinefs of a
nation depends upon the right adminidration
of juftice, that the judges of their fupreme tri«
bunal, (which confifted of thirty) when inftal-
led into their office, took an oath that they would
C 4 ' not
(40} MODERN HISTORY. Lec r. I.
not obey the king, if he commanded them to
pafs an unjufl fentence.
Laws are the fource of many blefiings to fo-
ciety ; without them, m^en would prey upon
one another with impunity ; property and life
would be daily expofed to the depredations of
the robber, and the attacks of the aiTaffin.
Were men under the influence of virtuous prin-
ciples, there would be no need of laws; but,
fincc the reverfe is the cafe, human laws are an
evidence of human depravity. Egypt was bene-
fited by laws, while no tra<:es of civil govern-
ment were to be found amongit other nations/
Marriage is fuppofed to have been infiituted by
Menes, the founder of that nation ; and, by the
laws of Egypt, a brother and fifter were allow-
ed to be joined in wedlock. This is contrary
to found morals, and was a very great defeat in
their law for the union of the fexes. All but
the priefls were permitted to have two or more
v/ives. Polygamy is neither agreeable to na-
ture, nor to the interefls of fociety. Thofe na-
tions which comply with the injunction of
the Chriftian religion, that every man fnould
have but one wife, and every woman but one
hufband, are more populous than the nations,
where the men are allowed a multiplicity of
wives. Moreover, it is evident, from the pro-
portion that females bear to males, that a man
ihould have only one wife at a time. Adultery,
^moft
L-cT. I. MODERN HISTORY. (41)
n\o(l unfriendly tofociet-y, was feverely punifii-,
ccl by the ancient Egyptians, llie man guilty
of the crime of adultery, received a thoufand
lafnes ; and the woman, that Ihe might be
known as an adultrefs, had her nofe cut off. —
Cowardice was punifned with marks of infamy.
A falfe accufer had the fame puniHiment in-
fiided on him, the accufed would have fuftered,
had the crimes laid to his charge been proved.
Not only the murderer, but the perfon who
could have prevented the murder, and did not,
were punifned with death. The parent who
murdered his own child, was obliged to hold
the dead body, three days and three nights, in
his arms, furrounded with a guard : the effect
thi^s would have upon his natural feelings, and
the difgrace to v/hich he would be expofed, they
thought would be the fevereftpunilliment, —
The Egyptians were of opinion, that the pro-
perty, not the perfon of the debtor, were liable
to difcharge the debts he had contradled : they
were unacquainted with the punifhments of
debtors, v^ hich men in latter tinaes have inven^
ted. We are told, that a king of Egypt, found
out a method to fecure honefty and fair dealing
in commerce : it was this, he ordered the debt-
or to pledge the dead body of his father with
the creditor; and if he did not redeem it, he,
when dead, was. deprived of burial. By the
laws of Egypt, idlenefs and mifcondud were fe-
vcrelv
(42) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
verely punilhed. Every perfon was obliged
once a year, to give an account of the employ-
ment he followed, and how he fubfiiled. He
who was found to live an idle life, or to fubfift
by difnoneft means, to the detriment of the com-
munity, was put to death. Idlenefs is indeed
the peft of fociety, and the parent of many vices ;
but to punifli it with death, was not proportion-
ing the punifhment to the crime. This was a
fevere law ; and Solon, who, no doubt, received
it from the Egyptians, made it one of that code
of laws, which he framed for the Athenian com-
monwealth.
There was a diflincflion of ranks among the
Egyptians ; and children were obliged by law,
to learn and follow the employm^ent of their
fathers. This they thought would prevent that
dillmdlion from being deftroyed. This was a
bad law. By it, genius was fettered, and a
flrong bar oppofed to every attempt to arrive
at perfection. The laws of the Egyptians were
imperfecfh Of many inftances of their imper-
fedlion which might be given, let one fuffice.—
Diodorus Siculus tells us, " That among that
people, thieves had a chief, with whom the fto-
len goods were depofited, and by applying to
him, thofe who were robbed, might, upon de-
fcribihg the goods taken from them, recover
them again, by paying one fourth of the value.'*
Probably^
Lec t. I. MODERN HISTORY. (43 )
Probably, this might be at firft a cullom, which
afterwards pafTed into a law.
Religion. — Religion is the firongeil' cement
of fociety, and produdlive of happinefs to the
individuals and nations that attend to it. Su-
perftition debafes religion, and is the fource of
many and great calamities. Though the idea
of a Supreme Being, and the unity of God,
might make a part of the ancient Egyptian re-
ligion, yet it is certain, that from that country,
the abfurd fables of Paganifm were derived,
which difgraced the worfhip of the Heathens,
and funk them into the extremes of impiety and
vice.
The Egyptians were remarkable for the bafe-
nefs of their fuperftition, and the abfurdity of
their worfhip. The Egyptian idolatry, proba-
bly began with paying divine adoration to the
heavenly bodies. This is the natural origin of
^11 idolatry. But there is no end of the religi-
ous vagaries of the human mind; when not
imprelTed with right notions of God, it goes
from one abfurdity to another. The Egyptians
worfliipped animal deities : their principal god
was ApiSy or Sefqftris, whom a black bull
with particular fpots reprefented. The cat,
Inchnumeny dog, Ibis^ falcon and wolf, were alfo
of the number of their deities. They were
magnificently maintained ; people of the high-
eft rank ferved them, oiid when they died they
gave
(44) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
gave them a pompous funeraL To hurt any
of thofe creatures was thought a heinous crhne,
and puniflicd with death. The Egyptians dif-
fered in their religious opinions and rites. The
crocodile Wi^ worfliipped in one province, and
the inchnumcn, his enemy, in another. Here,
the fhccp was the objedl of their fuperftition,
and there, the .^oat. Hence fprang hatred,
animofities and quarrels. The abfurdity of the
Egyptian Vv'orfliip, is finely ridiculed by Juvenal
the Roman fatyrifl. *
The Egyptian pr lefts "were pofTefTed of great
power ; they managed the fprings of govern-
ment as they pleafed, and by means of fuperfli-
tion, held the people in fubjeclion to them. —
Their theology was of two kinds, fecret and
popular: the latter, which confided only of
impious abfurdities, they taught the people ; the
former,
* Quis nefcit, qualia demens
Acgyptiis portcnta colat ? Crocodilon adorat
Pars haec ; ilia pavet ferpentibus ibin.
Illic cocruleos, heic pifcem fluminis, illic
Oppida tota canem veneranter, nemo Dianam.
Porrimi et caepe nefas violare, etfrangere morfu.
O fan<5«:as genteis, quibus hcec nafcuntur in hortis
Numina ! I anatis animallbus abftinet omnis
Menfa , ncfas illic foetum jugulare capellas.
— — ^ fummiis iitrinque
Inde furor vulgo, quod numina vicinorum
Odit uterque locu;, curn folos credat habendos
Efle Dcos, quos ipfecolit. Juv. Sat. xiri.
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (±s)
former, though mixed with fable, was more
rational and pure. ' They affected myfleries,
and promoted fuperflition, becaufe they found
thefe to be ufeful to them. Prieilcraft has pre-
vailed more or lefs in all ages; and human tra-
ditions and abfurdities have contaminated both
natural and revealed religion.
Manners, — Religion has an influence on man-
ners. While the religious principles of a nation
are impure and favage, their manners will be of
the fame complexion ; but: will become fimple
and pure, as foon as they attain to juftand ration-
al ideas of the Supreme Being, and of the worfnip
fliited to his pure and fpiritual nature. The
manners of the Egyptians refembled their reli-^
gion ; and the one had an qffe6l upon the other*
Refpedl to parents and old age, gratitude for
benefits received, a love of peace, and an attach-
ment to ancient cufloms, v/ere the principal
virtues, and what they were moit careful to in-
culcate upon youth. Their vices were many ;
nor could it be otherwifc, as the Egyptians
were an effeminate and idle peaple. In Egypt,
the men employed themfelves in fpinning, and
the women managed the domeflic affairs, and
the concerns abroad. The female, not the male
children, were obliged to take care of their pa-
rents. They held all foreigners in contempt ;
and from a conceited ignorance, thought that
nothing deferved their attention, but the pro-
ductions
(46) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
duclions of their own country. An evident
proof, that the ancient Egyptians were flrangcrs
to the proper methods of national improvennent
and civihzation. It is by rcdifying prefenn
inconveniences, by making alterations in the
laws, abolilhiing old, and introducing new cuf-
toms, that nations have emerged from, barbar-^
ifm, and the happinefs of fociety has been pro-
moted.
- Arts.— The arts tend to lelTen manual toil ;
to procure both the necelTaries and conveni-
ences of life ; and fo to render our prefent ftate
more agreeable and happy. That the arts in
the early periods of fociety, were but few and
imperfedt, is what might be expedled. The
real wants of men are not numerous, and as Ions
as they continue fo, only thofe arts are cultiva-
ted, by which they can be mofb eafily fupplied.
It was not till nations had extended their con-
nections by commerce, and acquired a tafte for
the elegancies of life, that many of the arts,
fo conducive to national wealth and pleafure,
were found out. Thus, while the arts which
promote diflipation and vice, are but of a mo-
dern date, thofe which are necefTary to living,
w^ere almofi: coeval with the creation of the
world.
Egypt was the birth-place of the arts. To
that country we ow^e the invention of the
plough, fo very necefTary in agriculture. The
firft
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (47)
firft ploughs ufed in tillage were all of wood.
*^ A proof (fays Mr. Goguct) that the tilling
of ground was introduced in light foils, fuch as
that of Egypt.'* Prior to the invention of the
plough, wooden fpades were ufed in hufbandry.
In fome parts of Scotland, efpecially in the
Highlands, a fpade is ftill ufed inftead of a
plough. But this mult be owing, either to the
poverty of the farmer, or to the ground being
inacceflible to the plough. Iron, of fuch ge-
neral ufe in all the arts, was, of all metals, the
laft difcovered, and the laft employed in me-
chanics. Want, a confcioufnefs of it, and in-
duftry were the mother of the arts ; but in
vain do we know our wants, had not the God
of nature furniflied materials and invention
wherewith to fupply them. Living in an age,
in which the arts are brought to great perfec-
tion, and enjoying the advantages they procure
us, we pay little attention to the great efforts
necefTary to their produclion : and yet, we are
told, that there are parts of the world, the
inhabitants of which ftill continue ignorant of
the arts mcfl: ufeful and neceffary. There
Jire nations, or rather tribes of favages, to whom
bread, the moli: common food, is not known.—
Fire, at leafb how to preferve and renew it, was
long unknown in the world ; we fee, from the
■well-known fable of Prometheus, that the
Heathens thought it came down from heaven.
Magellan
(4Sj MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1:
Magellan fays, that the people of the Marianne
i Hands, thought it was an animal tha*t fed upon
wood, and were afraid to come near it.* —
Though Mexico and Peru abound with iron,
yet the ufe of that metal was not known to the
inhabitants, when the Spaniards came among
them. The origin of the moil fimple and eafy
art, if it contributes to relieve our wants, or to in-
creafe our conveniences, be it the gift of nature,
or the effevflof induftry^ is worthy ouradmiration.
Chance has led to the difcovery of many arts.
For, though neceflity fet men upon making at-
tempts to fupply their wants, and thofe attempts
have been moftly fuccefsful ; yet, without fortu-
nate incidents, many things necelTary to life,*
could not have been difcovered.
The Egyptians Avere acquainted with the
arts from a very early period of the world.
Their linen yarn, (faid to have been of a very
fine texture) and fine fluffs, mentioned in fcrip-
ture, fhew them to have been well acquainted
with the arts of fpinning and weaving. The
pyramids, thofe enormous mafTes, v/hich have
withflood the lapfe of tim.e, are a ftanding mo-
nument of their fkill in architedure : but their
tafte was bad. Neither defign, nor juil pro-
portion, are to be found in thofe public works.
What hiftorians and travellers have faid of the
time
* Abbe Millot.
Lect. L modern history. (49)
time when, and the perfons by whom, the
pyramids were built, is only conjecture. Some
think they were built before the flood ; others,
that they were the work of the Ifraelites, whilft
in bondage in Egypt. The moft probable
conjecliure feems to be, that they are fepulchral
monuments, in which the embalmed bodies of
their kings, and great men, were laid. For the
Egyptains believed, that the immortality of the
foul continued no longer, than their bodies re-
mained unconfumed.
Sciences. — There is a clofe connedtion be-
tween the arts and fciences ; they exift together,
and the improvements, of the one, have a ten-
dency to render the other more perfed:.—
Where the arts flourifh, happy geniufes are
Simulated to make refearches, and to promote
knowledge. The divilion of land, the canals
dug to receive the waters of the Nile, and their
exad: admeafurement of the height of the waters,
ihew the Egyptianstohave been acquainted with
mechanics and geometry ; nor were they Gran-
gers to aftronomy. They divided the zodiac
into twelve figns, knew the motion of the hea-
venly bodies, could calculate eclipfes, and aflign
the caufes of them. They had fome notion of
a plurality of worlds, and of the motion of the
earth. The Egyptians ufed hieroglyphical or
emblematical writing; that is, the figure of an
objc<5l was made to reprefent the objed j and
D this.
(50) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
this, before the charaders of the alphabet were
invented, was, very probably, the original me-
thod of writing, ufed by all nations. Our letters
came from the Romans, the Roman alphabet
from the* Greeks; and the Greek characters,
fome of which are of Hebrew original, came
from the Phoenicians : hence, it is no improba-
ble inference, that letters were not before the
time of Mofes ; and that God himfelf gave them
to that iegiflator upon mount Horeb. From
the hiflory of the ancient Egyptians, come down
to us,, we fee, they had a genius for invention,
but carried nothing to perfedion ; they were
grofsly fuperftitibus, and much wedded to ab-
furd cudoms. The arts and fciences arrive at
perfedlion by gradual improvements ; one has
the honour of the invention, and another, that of
improving it.
Every thing, which relates to the ancient
Greeks, is worthy our attention : they had^jufl
ideas of the unalienable rights of men, and ma-
ny were their generous and fuccefsful llruggles
for liberty. Freedom operated in the laws of
the feveral republics, influenced their manners
and tafte, and was friendly to improvements in
the arts and fciences.
Sparta and Athens were the two Grecian re-
publics that made the greateft figure; both
v/ere courageous and enterprifing ; animated
with a love of liberty, they performed the moft
heroic
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. {51}
heroic acflions ; and yet, the Spartans and Athe-
nians were very dillimilar in their manners :
this difTimilarity could not be the efrect of
climate, but mult have heen owing to feme
other caufe. Whatever Spartan manners were
before Lacedemon was governed by the laws of
Lycurgus, I am apt to think, that his laws,
which that people obferved for near five hun-
dred years, had great influence in forming their
manners* v.
Laws of Lycurgus — His laws being connecfted
with good morals, he did, what very ^q'w legif-
lators have done. Riches and poverty are the
incentives to vice ; to procure the one, and avoid
the other, are the caufe of much mifchief to
fociety : thefe he banifhed from Sparta. The
lands were equally divided among the citizens.
Iron money was the only fpecie ufed; filver and
gold were prohibited in Sparta. The arts which
contribute to the luxuries of life, were difcou-
raged. The Spartans were obliged to eat m
public ; and their tables were furnifhed with
homely fare. Simple food fatisfies hunger;
delicacies provoke and debauch the appetite.
Whilft eating, they were entertained with lelfons
of temperance and fobriety. In this maimer
were the Lacedemonians taught to be humble
and contented ; to coniider rhcmfelves equal in
rank; to defpife felfiflmefs, effeminacy, and
pride ; and, being educated in common, to look
D 2 upon
(52) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
upon themfelves as the children of the ftate, not
as the children of individuals. It was thus they
were accufl:omed, from their infancy, to have a
generous aifedtion for each other, and infpired
with a noble ambition to excel. The old were
attentive to commend thofe who were worthy of
praife ; and to difcommend and corredl thofe
that did wrong. That the Spartans might be
habituated, from their infancy, to vigilance and
danger, children w^re abliged to fteal their
food ; and, if the theft was difcovered, they
were punifhed for allowing themfelves to be
detccfted. Every one is acquainted with the
condud of a Spartan- boy, ** who having ftolen
a young fox, concealed it under his robe ; but
the creature, not liking its lituation, wanted to
get away ; and the boy, rather than he fhould
be difcovered to have ftolen it, patiently allow-
ed the fox to gnaw^ his fide, till his entrails came
out.*' Thus the power of cuftom renders
things difficult and unnatural, natural and eafy ;
and a fenfe of ihame is fuperior to the molt
painful feelings.
Spartan Manners, — The Spartans have been
blamed for this, becaufe tending to encourage
thievifh depredations : however, we do not find,
though this was a part of the education of the
children of that republic, that the Spartans,
when grown up, were more addidled to ftealing
than other nations. It was not to raife in them
an
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (S3)
an inclination to take another*s property, that
they were taught fuch lefTons, but to make
them bold and expert. Their minds were
improved by a conftant habit of reafoning, in
fnort and' apt fentences, for which they were
famous. Thus, in modern times, a laconic
fentence, is a fentence, fhort but exprefTive,
The women, to render their bodies robuft and
healthy, had their exercifes as well as the men.
Thefe exercifes were not immodefl:. By the
influence of the laws of Lycurgus, modefty was
long preferved in Sparta. Debauchery, how-
ever, at laft broke in» and deluged that republic;
and the Spartan women became a difgrace to
their fex. The Lacedemonian women had
great power over the men. A Granger faid to
the wife of Leonidas ; " You are the only wo-
men that govern men.** " Yes,'* faid fhe,
" and we are the only women who are the
mothers of men." — Marriage was efteemed
honourable in Sparta, and celebacy was defpifed.
Among them, the names old maid and old
bachelor were fcarcely known. A young man
refufed to rife up at the approach of an illuftri-
ous general, becaufe he never had been marri-
ed. " You have no children, faid he, who may
fnew me the fame refpefl, and rife up at my
approach.'* The Spartans poflelTed great cou-
rage, and acquired great military lame. They
lived always in the camp, and marched againfl
D 3 their
f54) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
their enemies, with an ardour nothing couldcool.
Yet by their law&, their wars were to be only de-
fenfive. Spartan manners controuled their paf-
Hons ; fo that as long as they were careful not
to deviate from the laws of Lycurgiis, fo long
were they the firfl: republic in Greece, and ac-
quired the confidence and efteem of the Hates
around them.
I do nor pretend to fay, that Spartan manners
were perfed:, nor would I hold them up as a
model for modern nations to imitate. Perfec-
tion is not attainable on earth, nor are any of
the ancient kingdoms or republics a pattern to
civilized and commercial nations.
The auftere virtue of the Lacedemonians,
fometimes degenerated into barbarity. Rigidly
fevere, their hearts were not foftened by the
milder virtues : parents were authorifed, by the
laws of Sparta, to expofe, or put to death, their
wxak children i and chis unnatural cruelty they
often pradifed : with a veiw to accuftom their
children to fuffer pain, they fcourged them
fo unmercifully, as fometimes to occafion their
death. The helots, or flaves, who cultivated
their lands, were treated by their unfeeling ma-
fters, with the mod favage cruelty. In a word;
they feem, from the mpde of their education, to
have contracted too great a degree of infenfibi-
lity : thefe, I fay, were worthy of blame. But,
though their humane feelings were not what
the)?
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (55)
they Ihould have been, they neverthelefs, de-
ferve praife. The Spartans pofTeifed a greatnefs
of foul, rarely to be met with in the nations of
tnodern times. A citizen of that republic being
i*eje6ted from being one of the council of three
hundred ; faid, " He was happy that Sparta had
found three hundred citizens better than him-
felf.*' One of the Spartan kings being afked,
tinder what government men could live with
greateft fafety ? Anfwered, " Under that, where
the people are neither rich nor poor ; where
probity finds friends, and fraud finds none."
Laws of the Athenians. — The principles and
manners of the Athenians, were different from
thofe of Sparta. They, more than any other of
the Grecian flates, were animated with an ar-
dent love of liberty. A defire to be free, would
not allow them to fubmit to the kingly power.
Royalty was abolifhed in Athens, and the chief
power lodged in the hands of the people. No
fociety can fubfilT: without laws. The Athe-
nians were without a code ; Draco framed one,
about 624 years before the birth of Chrifl. But
his laws, which punifhed all crimes with deaths
were fo very fevere, that they were found to be
inconfiftent with the government and happinefs
of a free people.
Solon, a man eminent for his birth and know-
ledge, compofed (about 6G years after Draco)
a new code of laws for his countrymen, more
D 4 conformable
(56} MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
conformable to their manners and lituation.
To enumerate them, might afford the reader
but litile entertainment. Let it fuffice to fay,
that his laws were imperfe(5t : he was defirous
to pleafe all ranks in the ftate, therefore, the
root of every evil was allowed to remain. But
Solon was not to blame, if. what he faid were
true, that his laws were accommodated to the
circumPiances of the Athenians, and the belt
they were capable of receiving.
War was the fole employment of the Spartans.
Every citizen was obliged to be a hero, or re-
nounce his country. The Athenians cultivated
learning, and the arts : they were obliged to
bear arms, when the neceflities of the ftate re-
quired it; but in time of peace, they might fol-
low any purfuit their genius led them to. In
Sparta, a love of poverty deflroyed thefprings of
avarice ; in Athens, the hope of riches was an
incitement to induftry : habituated to obedience
from their infancy, the Spartans readily fub-
mitted to the laws ; the Athenians were impa-
tient of fubje^dlion ; an exceilive fondnefs of li-
berty was in them producftive of licentioufnefs^
they defpifed the laws and the magiftrates,
whofe power was too weak to keep them within
due bounds. ,
If government has an influence upon manners,
fo iPianners have an influence upon government.
The fevere laws of Lycurgus, being fuited to
the
Lect. L modern history. (57)
the aufterity of Spartan manners, made them
conformable to them. The manners of the
Athenians were of a milder cafl ; having a tafte
for pleafure, and unliable for want of fixed
principles, a bad fyflemof laws could not make
them better. Such was the contrail, between
thofe two ancient celebrated republics. Spartan
feverity often degenerated into cruelty ; whilft
the Athenians, humane, polite, gentle, and in-
genious, diftinguilhed themfelves by glorious
adions, and noble works. The people of Sparta
treated the helots with great barbarity; the
citizens of Athens behaved to their flaves with
fo much humanity, that fervants in modern
times, cannot be better treated, than they were.
Fine Arts. — The fine arts were cultivated, and
carried to great perfecftion in Greece. Liberty
has an influence upon tafte; and when people
have, by their induftry, acquired wealth, the
luxuries of life are reliihed and fought after, and
the fine arts are encouraged, as a means to dif-
play and enjoy their riches. Pericles, a noble
and celebrated Athenian, was the firit of the
Greeks that patronized the fine arts ; and his
countrymen continued for a long time after to
excel m them. To the Greeks we are indebted
for three of the orders of architecture, the Cor-
inthian, the Doric, and the Ionic ; thefe are dill
the flandard of good tafle in building. The
Greeks produced excellent painters and fculp-
tors.
(58) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
tors. Phidias brought the art of ftatuary W
perfection : Praxiteles made two exquifite ila-
tues of Venus, which were much admired. He
gave the people of Coos their choice of them at
the fame price; who made choice of the leaft
handfome, becaufe it was cloathed, and the other
naked : a noble example of modefty. The
Greek painters ufed only four colours in paint-
ing ; black, white, red, yellow : they were ac-
quainted with what is called the claro-ohjcuroy
the clear obfcure in painting, w^hich makes the
figure painted fwell to the eye. Yet it is pro-
bable, that they were inferior in this art to a
Raphael, and fome other modern painters. In
Greece, ingenious arts were nobly rewarded:
this was to artifts, the beft excitement to emu-
lation to excel in their feveral profellions.
Mufic, — The Greeks were fond of mufic : It
had even an influence on their laws, and tended
to give a foftnefs to their manners. All nations,
whether barbarous or civilized, have felt the
power of harmony, and fhewn, that a tafle for
mufic is natural to man. Mulic foftens favage
manners, infpires courage, the love of virtue,
and animates to noble avflions. Mufic and
poetry are twin fiflers : the bards in former
tinies were both poets and mulicians ; they fang
the atchievements of their hero in poetic flrains
of their own compofmg. Ancient mufic was
manly, nervous, fimple and majeftic ) proper to
footh
Lect. L modern history. (59)
footh the paflions, and regulate the temper. The
effeminate mufic of modern times was then
unknown. The art of mufic, in fo high eflima-
tion among the Greeks, was negledied by the
Romans, who left it to their flaves. The lyre
was the mufical inftrument ufed by the ancients ;
at firfl' it had three firings. Timotheus increafed
them to eleven, and more were afterwards added.
The Greeks were acquainted with mufic in dif-
ferent parts, performed together ; their mufical
notes were eighteen, diftinguifhed by fo many
particular characters : but the gamut, invented
in the eleventh century, by Guy D'Rezzo, has
rendered this art much more eafy.
Poetry, — We excel in any art only in propor-
tion as nature has endowed us with a genius for
it. Men mufl be born poets, elfe they never
can acquire the art by education. A lively ima-
gination, an inventive fancy, and a correft
tafte, are ne^effary to excel in poetry. The
writings of Homer and other Greek poets, fhev/
them to have been poffeffed of thefe talents.
Their language, flexible and fonorous, majeftic,
graceful and flrong, was adapted to poetry. No
language is fo well fuited as the Greek, to make
the found an echo to the fenfe.
Poetry is perhaps the firft of all' arts; the
mofl favage nations have cultivated it. Men, by
a kind of inftincSt, love to fing their pleafures
and happinefs, the praifes of the divinity whom
they
(6o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
they adore, the adlions of the hero they admire,
and whatever they would wifh to have imprelTed
on the heart. The paffions, particularly the
tender kind, greatly promote this piealing art.
Every lover is a poet. But the humane feelings
often infpire the poet's fong. We are told, that
Homer's view in compofmg the Illiad was, to
put an end to the difcord and animoiities which
prevailed in the ftates of Greece in his time.
The drama was invented in the time of Solon;
for before that period, the Grecian plays did
not deferve the name of dramatic performances. f
^fchylus, who was contemporary with Xerxes'
invafion of Greece, was the father of tragedy ;
he endeavoured, by terror and pity, to move the
heart. Sophocles made tragedy more intereft-
ing; his plots were regular, and his ftyle, lofty and
nervous, was better fuited to that kind of writ-
ing, than the liyle of yEfchylus. Euripides, who
contended with Sophocles for the palm of vic-
tory, introduced into his tragedies that philofo-
phy, which is calculated to infpire the mind
with a love of virtue.
The province of comedy is to expofe vice by
turning it into ridicule ; that, by expofing
faulty characters upon the ftage, it may be a
means to corred: thofe vices, which are not
amenable
f The firft tragedy was afted at Athens, on a moveable ftagc
or waggon by Thefpis, ^^^ years before the birth of Chrift.
Lkct. L modern history. (6i)
amenable to human laws,* The ancient come-
dy was very faulty in this; it expofed living
charad:ers, by directly pointing at them, and
turning them into ridicule. The ancient comic
mufe, like a malicious fatyrift, befpattered equal-
ly the virtuous and the vicious. It is a proof
of the licentious manners of the Athenians, that
they could be pleafed with the buffooneries of
an Ariftophanes, w hile he endeavoured to turn
Socrates into ridicule upon the rtage, as if he
had been one of the worfl men in Athens. The
middle comedy, as it is called, infulted a perfon
with naming him, The new comedy defcribed
manners, without pointing at any particular
peribn. This is the comedy of modern times.
" A mirror, (as Boileau fays,) in which one may
fee the pidiureof himfelf, laugh at his own fol-
lies, and in an agreeable manner learn to'corred:
them." And yet it admits of a doubt, if ever
any were perfuaded to corred: their faults by fee-
ing them expofed upon. the ftage. The play-
houfe is frequented tor amufement, not for in-
flrudlion; and the picture of vice and folly fhewn
upon the flage, is viewed by the audience, as
belonging to others, and not to themfelves.
Philofophy. — Time would fail, were we to
enumerate the philofophers and hiftorians
Greece
* The firft comedy was afted at Athens upon a moveable
fcafFold, 562 years before Chrift.
02) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, L
Greece has produced. The works of a 1 hucy-
dides and Xenophon, of a Plato and Ariflotle,
will inform my learned reader, to what degree
of perfedion the Greeks carried hiftory and
philofophy. We would obferve, that the know-
ledge of hiftory is one of the greatefl advan-
tages we derive from an acquaintance with the
Greeks; but the moderns cannot be much be-
nefited by the ftudy of their philofophy. The
different fedls of Grecian philofophers contra-
dicted each other : their different fyflems, not
founded in reafon and experiment, were only
the whims of their own brain : their moral
philofophy is not agreeable to truth, and the
nature of man; not the refult of a proper ac-
quaintance with the nature of good and evil. —
Indeed, Socrates appears to have been the befl
moral philofopherof all the Greeks; the oracle
pronounced him the wifeft man of his time :
he taught, (for we have none of his writings,
nor did he commit any thing to writing) that
the proper lludy of man, is to know himfelf ;
that the end true philofophy has in view, is to
promote public and private virtue; that the
philofophy which does not do this, is unworthy
the name. But Socrates appeared too foon in
the world, as men were not in a capacity to re-
ceive his wife inflrudlions. Had he appeared
in thefe enlightened ages, he would have Ihone
confpicuoufly as a Chriftian philofopher The
Athenians
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (63)
Athenians treated Socrates as a contemner of
the gods of his country, an enemy to the repub-
lic, and, to reward his fervices to his fellow-
men, made him drink the juice of hemlock. —
The Greeks were well fkilled in the military-
art, as prac^lifed by the ancients ; their wars
with the Periians, and frequent difputes among
themfelves, m.ade them expert in the encamp-
' ments of armies, in the order of their battle,
and in improvements in the arms and accou-
trements of their foldiers : they were acquaint-
ed with geometry, ailronomy, geography, me-
dicine, and finance ; that is, the way to raife a
revenue, and manage it properly ; a fcience of
great importance to every government.
Eloquence. — Eloquence flourifhes moil in po-
pular governments : there the public fpeaker
has the mofl proper incitements and opportu-
nities to difplay his oratorial powers, and to ac-
quire perfedcion in the art of fpeaking. The
Athenian government was favourable to elo-
quence. It could not fail to thrive in a city,
where popular applaufe was the road to fame
and to fortune. True eloquence is the art of
convincing by reafon ; it interefts our pafTions,
and perfuades, by fpeaking to the feelings and
judgment of men. In Greece, oratory was
taught like other fciences; the orator, not only
declaimxd in the fchools, but early accu itemed
himfeif to fpeak in public. The fophifts, who
fet
(64) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I.
fet up to be public teachers, corrupted the Grecian
eloquence. They wandered from the road of
truth and nature, taught their fcholars to alter
the appearance of things, to give the varnifh of
truth to falfehood, to dazzle rather than con-
vince their hearers, and to take either fide of
the queftion.
Pericles reflored true eloquence at Athens^
and Demofthenes carried it to perfedion. —
Nature had not formed Demoilhenes an orator ;
his voice was weak, his pronunciation defec-
tive; he could not pronounce the letter R:
thefe defeds occafioned his being hifTed the firlt
time he attempted to fpeak in public. A co-
median, to whom he lamented his misfortune,
told him, he might take comfort, for his cafe
was not defperate ; there was a remedy for his
defedls, and a way to attain to the powers of ora-
tory. The player made him rehearfe fome
verfes, which he afterwards repeated with fuch
grace and energy, that Demofthenes found they
had a quite different effed:. This convinced
the orator, that his fuccefs depended on adion.
To acquire it, he built himfelf a little cell,
where he ufed to pradlife for months together.
To accuftom himfelf to thcnoife of a tumultu-
ous affembly, he would fometimes declaim on
the fea-fhore ; at other times, to help him to
pronounce well^ he would fpeak with fmall
ftones in his mouth, while walking or climbing
up
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (65]
up a hill. Perfeverance and ambition to excel,
can overcome the greatell: difficulties. Demof-
thenes, conquered nature, and, by the power
of his eloquence, ruled the Athenians as he
pleafed* The moft famous orators fell before
him. Philip of Macedon ufed to fay, that he
dreaded the thunder of Demofthenes' eloquence
more than the fleets and armies of Greece.
He bids fair to excel as an orator, who care-
fully forms himfelf upon the ancients ; whereas,
to neglect the imitation of Demofthenes and
Cicero, thefe great m afters of oratory, is the
fure way never to make a figure as a public
fpeaker.
Rome, from fmall beginnings, became mif-
trcfs of the world. A few caufes contributed to
advance the Romans to univerfal dominion ; they
pofTcfTedan ambition of being the firft power in
the world ; this ambition nothing could check ;
they laid hold of every occafion to gratify it.
They had the moft excellent mode of military
difcipline ; the exercifes of their foldiers were
fuchas to habituate them to toil, and render them
invincible in the field of battle ; their military
refources w^re inexhauftable. The eafe with
which they repaired their great lofies, in the
war with Hannibal, is a proof of this. They
paid an exacl and ready obedience to the law^s.
'* There is nothing (fays Montefquieu) fo pow-
erful as a republic, where the laws are obeyed^
X -E not
(66) MODERN HISTORY. Ltcr. L
not from fear or rcafoning, but from paflion, as
was the cafe in Rome and Sparta.'* For at
that time, all the zeal which faction could
infpire, was added to the prudence of an excel-
lent government. A kind of cnthufiafm from
father to fon, gave life to all their enterprifes.
Roman manners continued a long time in-^-
eorrupted. A love of probity, and a love of
poverty, with an ambition of conquefl, kept
them at a diftance. from thofe vices, which
enervate the mind. In what are called the
happy times of the republic, the Romans, it is
true, were of unpoliihed manners, but they
were not effeminate. And virtuous manners,
without the polifh of refinement, are preferable
to vicious manners with it. In the fpace of five
hundred years from the building of Rome,
there was only one divorce, and that too, upon
account of barrennefs ; a ftrong proof of the very
high elleem in which that people held conjugal
fidelity. But time and circuinfiances change
the manners of nations. The Romans having
fubjugated Italy, carried their arms into the
eafl; there they learned the vices of the effemi-
nate Afiatics. Thefe vices imported into
Rom.e, corrupted its ancient manners, and
enflaved the conquerors of the world. The
great men were firit infeded; and they, by
their example, and to court the favour of the
people, debauched them. The infedion fpread
like
Lect. I. MODERN HISTORY. (67)
like wild-fire, and foon feized all ranks in the
(late : the fatal confeqaences of which, were the
mofl: licentious manners, civil wars, and the lofs
6f liberty. The change of Roman manners,
from virtuous to vicious, occafioncd the fall of
that famous republici and made thofe, who
were once free, fu.bmit to flavcry.
The ancient Romans were, for a long time,
a ruftic and ignorant people, unacquainted with
thofe improvements which promote the con-
veniences and comforts of life. The city of
Rome was not paved till five hundred and
feventy-five years after it was founded. For
five hundred years the Romans had no method
to meafure time by. Scipio Nafica invented a
water clock, by which the hours were meafured.
A Greek, who came to Rome in the time of
Hannibal, was the firft who pradlifed phylic
and furgcry in that city. Ennius and Nevius
were the firif Roman hiflorians ; they w rote in
verfe ; their poetry, we may reafonably fuppofe,
was barbarous, and their hillories uninterefiing.
The Romans became enlightened by an in-
tercourfe and acquaintance with the Greeks.
Plautus and Terence refcued the Roman ftage
from barbarity, and introduced the Grecian
manner, of ac1:ing. Their plays, (particularly
thofe of Terence) written in the true flylc and
manner of comedy, were better adapted for re-
prefentation, than thofe with which the Ro-
E a mans
(68) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. L
mans had been entertained. Polybius Die wed
them how to write hiftory : they became ac-
quainted with the philofophers of GreecCo
From the fame quarter their bad tafte was
correcfled, and their ruflic manners poliflied
and refined. Cato the Elder, called alfo the
Cenfor, who, from an apprehenfion of the con-
fequences, difliked fuch improvements, got a
law enaded, by which philofophers and teachers
of rhetoric were banifhed from Rome. In this
he w^as certainly miflaken. Learning is bene-
ficial to a nation ; nor can men be called wife
and happy, as long as they are ignorant. —
The writings of Cicero, Virgil and Horace ; of
Livy, Salluft and Tacitus, do more honour to
the Roman name, than all the wars and con-
quefts of ancient Rome. Learning, like reli-
gion, or any other good thing, may be abufed i
but learning, when dire(5led to its proper end^
viz. the inveftigation of truth, and to dilTemi-
nate ufeful knowledge, is one of the greatefb
bleffings of human life. The difference be-
tween the man of learning, and the ignorant,
may be faid to be as great, as that between a
perfon endowed with reafon, and an idiot.
" There is one thing very furprifmg to us,,
(fays an ingenious WTiter *) which yet was very
common at Rome. To fee the fame man st
magiftrate^,
* Abbe Mlllot-
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (69)
magiflrate, a warrior, a judge, and a general ;
an able pleader, and a ikilful politician; a
flatefman, and a man of letters ; capable of fig-
nalizinghimfelf, andof being ufeful in all thofe
different employments. What wonderful menl
Surely their education mufl have been very dif-
ferent from ours ! How limited the circle in
which our talents are confined!" In modern
times, the perfon who adls well in one depart-
ment of life, is highly commended ; but to fill
feveral with advantage to the public, would
make him be thought a kind of prodigy.
L E C T U R E II,
H(/Iory, Laws, Manners, Cujloms, Religion of the
modern Nations of Europe,
THEsera of modern hillory,mofl: interefting,
begins near the end of the eighth century,
when Charlemagne became emperor of the weft.
For that warlike and fuccefsful prince, having
fubdued the nations, who, upon the dovvnfal of
the Roman empire, had polfelfed themfelves of
Italy, and fettled there ; being mafter of France
and Germany, the Low Countries, and a part of
Spairt, was, on Chriflmas-day, 800, crowned
emperor of Rome, by Pope Leo III. I will ihew
in a few words, as neceflary to conned; the feve-
E 3 ral
(70) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect. II,
ral periods of modern hiilory, rhe caufes of the
decline of the Roman empire, and by whom
the modern nations of Europe were founded.
The fubverfion of the Roman empire by rude
barbarians ; the glory and flrength of ancient
Rome laid in the dufb ; the monuments of her
greatnefs and learning deflroyed, claim our at-
tention, as an event unparalleled in the revolu-
tions of nations : caufes however exifted to pro-
duce an effect fo furprifmg.
Rome pofTelTed a very extenfive dominion in
Europe, Alia, and Africa. The riches of all
her provinces centered in that city ; her great
wealth produced luxury, and the moft dilRpated
manners ,- thefe extinguilhed that love of liberty
which acftuated her citizens in the purer times
of the republic. Her foldiers, v»'ho, in the time
of the commonwealth, were obedient to their
commanders, confcious of their importance in
the ftruggles between the great men for power,
became licentious, and the inftruments of de-
fpotifm ; railing to the throne, or tumbling into
the duf}-, -thofe who obtained, or forfeited their
favour, it is impoffihle to endave a virtuous
nation. Rome did not lofe her liberty, till flie
had loft her virtue; and, being corrupted in her
manners, Ihe made no attempt to regain it;
but, amidll: fo many changes, quietly fabmitted
to the em.pcror of the day. Rome had now and
then emperors, thai \\ ere great men j they did
what
LrcT. II. MODERN HISTORY. (71}
what they could to ftem the torrent of corruption
and vice ; under them Rome feemed to get the
better of her diflemper, but it was only for a
moment ; her difcafe was of the moft inveterate
kind. Corruption again appeared in its full
ilrength ; llie grew weaker by frequent relapfes,
till at laft her diilemper proved mortal.
Conflantine, the firft Chriftian emperor, hav-
ing taken a diflike to Rome, where, (as fome
hiftorians fay) he was detefted for his many
cruelties, refolved to build a new capital ; and,
having made choice of the ancient Byzantium
on the Thracian Bofphorus, made it a fecond
Rome, gave it the name of Conftantinople, {i,e.
the city of ConftantineJ and to it facrificed the
interefls of the empire. That (^vcnt greatly
contributed to the decline of the Roman power
in the weft. For, by removing the feat of go-
vernment to Conftantinople, though he fet up a
barrier in the eaft, againft the incurfions of the
barbarians on that fide, he left Italy without a
proper defence. Rome fell when Conftantino-
ple arofe; and the empire under Conftantine's
fucceflbrs, being fplit into two, the eaftern and.
weftern, became weak, by having loft that ener-
gy, which would have proceeded from an union
of all the parts.
However that may be, it was in the time of
Honorius, the fon of Theoddfius, (who began
his reign in the weft, in the year of our Lord,
E4 395)
(72) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
395) that the barbarians broke, like an inunda-
tion, into Italy. liTuing from the forefts of the
north, they, with wonderful rapidity, overfpread
the fertile fouthern provinces of Europe. —
Every thing gave way to their prowefs ; the
moH: beautiful countries, and populous cities,
were pillaged, burnt and laid wafte. The ty-
rants and fcourges of the human race, fell be-
neath their fword ; the ftrength and magnifi-
cence of the Roman empire, the work and
wonder of ages, was overturned, and out of its
llupendous ruins arofe the modern nations of
Europe. Revenge, and a thirft of conqueff,
animated thofe favage warriors; before them
refinance gave way : all was plundered, defola-
ted and tmged with bood. Thefe emigrations,
(which under Radagefus with his Goths, Alaric
with his Vifigoths, Atilla with his Huns, Gen-
feric with his Vandals, Odoacerwith his Heruli,
and Theodoric with his Oftrogoths, lafled a
whole century) fucceeded one another with
amazing rapidity. The north at lafl: ceafed to
pour out its myriads, but the poirefTions of
the ancient Romans were no more. Scarcely
do there remain any veftiges of their laws, man-
ners, learning and arts. The Vifigoths pofTef-
fed them.felves of Spain; the Franks of Gaul;
the Saxons of Britain ; the Huns of Pannonia ;
the Oftrogoths of Italy. From that period,
new forms of government, new laws, languages,
manners^
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (73)
manners, cuftoms, anddreiTes, were introduced
into Europe. Countries, and their inhabitants
received rqw names, and the face 0^ Europe
was entirely changed.
We have already mentioned the caufes which
occaiioned the downfal of the Roman empire,
after it had continued, in more or lefs fplendour,
twelve hundred years. But if my readers wifh
to be more perfecflly acquainted with the feve-
ral caufes, which prepared, brought on, and
haftened her fall, we would refer them to the
authors mentioned in the note below, who have
ailigned and defcribed them in the moft elo-
quent and philofophical manner. * And, do
they wifh, to know who they were, that fv/al-
lowed up the Roman empire ? I would inform
them that they were our fathers ; thofe from
whom we are defcended. Europe is one im-
menfe family, divided into many branches, but
all fprung from the fame root. The anceftors
of the Englifh, French, Spaniards, kalians^ and
Germans, were Goths, Vifigoths, Saxons, Franks,
Vandals, Huns ; all thefe people came from the
fame ftorehoufe. The northern parts of Eu-
rope brought them forth, and their anceflors
came, in all probability, from ancient Scythia,
or modern Afiatic Tartary. After having al-
moft annihilated the weak and effeminate Ro-
mans ;
* PufFendorf, BofTuet, Montefquieu, Robertfon, Fergufon,
Millot, Gibbon,
(74) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II.
mans; after having deftroyed the monuments
of their ancient grandeur, their rage abated,
and they fettled in the countries they had
conquered.
Governments, — The firfl objed: which attracts
our notice, is the form of government under
v/hich thofe people lived, when they invaded
the Roman empire. It was the fame as defcri-
bed by Casfiir and Tacitus, f very unlike the
regular and well adjufted governments of mo-
dern nations. While they continued in their
woods, and uncultivated forefts, fociety among
them, w^as in its infant ftate. Without any
bond of connection, families, feparate from, and
independent of each other, were under no form
of government. Did they plan a military ex-
pedition ; or rather a plundering excuriion ? it
ivas then they felt the necefTity of united ftrength.
Thefe fcattered and wandering clans afiembled
in a body ; and each of them were headed by
independent chieftains ; but, the neceflity of
their affairs requiring a captain,' invefled with
fupreme authority, who might condud: the expe-
dition, he was chofen in a tumultuous aiTembly,
That chief, to whom they gave the title of king,
pofTefTed a very limited authority : he had, as
chief captain, a right to give his advice firfl",
but no power to enforce obedience to it. The
chief
t See Cxfar de Bel. Gal. and Tacit, de Mor, Gerra.
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. {75)
chief of each family or clan, confulted about,
and determined thofe matters, which particu-
larly belonged to their own tribe ; but national
concerns were difcuiTed in an afTembly of the
whole community. The primitive conllitution
of thofe people, feems to have been a military
democracy, in which, each member voluntarily
proteded the Hate, and where each free man
had a lliare in the government* The fruits of
conqueft belonged to all ; they all had a right
to any acquilition that might be made. Their
king or chieftain, was only the firft citizen of
the community : his power depended on his
perfonal qualifications ; and the fucccflion to
the crown, was neither hereditary, nor eledtive
in the fame family. The fon, if he inherited
the virtues and qualities of his father, fucceeded
him without oppofitipn ; but if nature had de«
nied him thefe, if profligate, or too young, the
nearefl: relation, or the mofl: eminent perfon
amongfh them, was raifed to the throne. This
is nearly the idea, which Tacitus gives us of
the government of the ancient Germans.
From w hat we read of them, we fee that war
was their fole delight. Among them, the mar-
tial fpirit reigned in full vigour. Inhabiting a
country, favage and uncultivated ; a country
abounding with forefls, and covered with mo-
ralTes ; expofed to a fevere climate, and difdain-
ing to procure fubuilance from cultivating the
ground ;
(76) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
ground ; they fupported themfelves by depre-
dations on their neighbours. In their opinion,
the fword was their beft right to their neigh-
bour's property ; and they exercifed it without
remorfe, as a right nature gave them. Educa-
ted, from their infancy, in the fatigues, hard-
iliips, and perils of war, their bodies were liran-
gers to pain, to licknefs, and difeafe. They
fported with dangers, and met death with joy.
Jealous of liberty, they relifled the attempts of
ihofe who wiihed to enflave them» Though
ftrongly attached to the chiefs of their own
choice, yet they continued to enjoy freedom in
this ftate of military fubjedlion. This military
democracy continued without any alteration, as
long as their wars were only mutual plundering
excurfions ; but, when they took polTeflion of
the provinces of the Roman empire, their go-
vernment became ariftocratical. Having fixed
themfelves there ; they, being equally afraid of
the ancient inhabitants, as of new invaders,
adopted a clofer union ; and, for the public
fafety, facrificed a part of their rights, to pre-
ferve the reft. From that time their leader was
confidered as chief of the colony. To him was
given the greateft Ihare of the conquered lands ;
and each foldicr, in receiving a ftiare of the con-
queft, according to his rank in the army, en-
gaged himfelf to march againft the enemies of
the community. The chiel officers had the
moft
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (77)
moft conliderable lots of land ; by which par-
tition, a fmall number gained a moft dangerous
afcendancy, and the public liberty received a
mortal wound. The king, or chieftain, whofc
fhare was moft conliderable, to reward paft fer-
vices, and to attach to him new partizans, divi-
ded his lands, and obliged thofe to whom he
gave them, to repair to his ftandard, and afTift
him in his wars, under the exprefs ftipulation
of having his gifts taken from them. The nobles,
or principal officers, followed his example, and
appeared at the head of their numerous valfals.
They foon alTumed the rights of fovereigns, in
their feveral diftrids; difputed the authority of
their chief, refufed to attend him, or took up
arms againft him. Every idea of political
fubje(ftion was loft ; the bond of connedlion be-
tween the chief and principal members, was
diflalved, and the intereft and happinefs of the
whole, utterly negledled. A frightful anarchy
was the confequence of that ariftocracy ; the
people were endaved, trodden under foot, and
juftice was no where adminiftered. Among
the nobles, a thoufand jealoufxes fomented a
thoufand wars ; nothing but inteftine commo-
tions were to be feen; men butchered one ano-
ther, and Europe, during that period, was a
theatre of i he moft horrible carnage; it appeared
to be inhabited only by wild beafts that devour-
ed each other. Such was the feudal fyftem of
our
(7S) MODERN ^^ISTORY. Lect. IL
our anceflors. Pity it is, that any vefligcs of it
Ihould (till remain in a country which boalts her
freedom !
Fi ance, — Clovis and his Franks conquered
Gaul, (now France) and founded an almoft
abfolute monarchy in that country. He had
not, at firft, a more extenfive authority, than
the other chiefs of the barbarians ; but the vic-
tories he obtained over the Burgundians, whom
he made tributary, and over the Vifigoths,
•whom he fubdued, made him formidable. An
excellent politician, he knew how to lurn every
thing to his ov/n advantage. Having embra-
ced Chriftianity, he fo managed matters re-
fpedling religion, as to gain the bifhops and
people. After his converiion, to which policy,
more than a convi(5lion of the truth of Chrifti-
anity, had contributed, his external deportment
"Was marked with devotion. We are told, that
he, in honour of St. Martin, forbad his foldiers
to touch any thing in Touraine, but grafs and
water.— He built many churches and monafbe-
ries; but his ambition, increafed by fuccefs,
degenerated into cruelty. However, the cru-
elties which he exercifed upon thofe nobles
•who had fmall eftates, and w horn he caufed to
be murdered, ferved only to ftrengthen his au-
thority ; and he died an abfolute monarch,
tranfmitting his conquefts to his children, as an
inheritance that could not be difputed. His
defcendants>
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (79)
defcendants/ deflltute of his political and war-
like talents, could not fupport the French
monarchy in the abfolute manner he had done.
After his death, all went to confufion : his
children, weak and cruel, quarreled with one
another^ and ftained their hands with paternal
blood ; hence, treafons, alTaflinations, with eve-
ry other diforder, deluged France with crimes
and' blood. Under fuch weak princes, the
great men acquired more authority. The power
of the mayors of the palace (a chief citiccr of
the court) increafed; and they Toon paved their
"vvay to the throne. Pepin Heriftel, mayor of
Auflrafia, (now Normandy) by the aiTailination
of Ebroin, who governed Neuflria, as a tyrant,
found him.felf abfolute mafler of two kingdoms.
He gained the aite(5lion of the nation by his
wife and jufl conduct, quelled feveral rebel-
lions, and obtained two vidlories in Germany.
The monarchs of France had then only the
ihadow of kingly pow^r. Confined to their
palace, as in a prifon, they did nothing, and all
W'as done in their name. The heroic qualities
of Charles Martel, and his fuccefs againil the
Saracens, increafed the grandeur and influence
of his family ; and Pepin completed the revolu-
tion, by taking from the race of Clovis, every
vcftigc of royalty. Thus we fee, that kingdoms,
like private property, have pafTed from one
family to another ; a firiking proof of the fluc-
tuation
(go) Modern HISTORY. Lect.jl
tuation and changes of human affairs, and that:
the wifdom of man cannot fecure ail uninterrup-
ted hereditary fucceilion.
Spain^-^Spain, whilfl under the dominion of
the Vandals, Suevi and Alains, exhibited only
fcenes of carnage and deftruclion. The Vifi-
goths drove them out, fixed themfelves in that
country, and adopted the fame form of govern-
ment as the other barbarians. The Vifigoth
kings were generally weak, or vicious, or both ;
confequently u nhappy . The throne was elective,
and the power of the king very precarious. In
thefe unfettled and contentious times, the peo-
ple often revolted, and murdered their kings.
The Vifigoths were very jealous of the privilege
of chufmg their king. Suintila, monarch of all
Spain, to fecure the fuccefTion in his own family,
would alTociate his fon Richemire with him in
the government, without confulting the incli-
nation of the people ; but the attempt coft him
his crown and life. After his death, thebilliops
and nobles difpofed of the crown ; a council
adjudged the right of eledion to belong to them;
and by that the majority of the nation loft
their moft important prerogatives. Wamba,-
whom the nobles forced to accept of the crown,
w^as depofed by a council of the clergy ; and
Erviga, who poifoned him, eledted in his place.
It was then that a furprifi ng revolution hap-
pened in Spain. The debaucheries, cruelties,
and
Lect. 1L modern history. ( 8 1 )
and impieties of Witiza^ occafioned a civil war;
he was dethroned, and his children exckided from
the fucceflion. Roderic took poiTcflion of the
throne, but the two fons of Witiza formed a
party againfl him.- Oppas, Archbifliop of
Seville, their uncle, and Count Julian, efpouf-
ed their caufe.* They requefl adiftance from
Muza, the Saracen governor of Africa. .
The Saracens arrive in Spain, engage Roderic
in the plains of Xeres, in Andalufia, defeat the
Chriftians, kill the king, and transfer the king-
dom from the Vifigoths to the Moors. Pela-
gius, of the blood-royal of the Goths, with a
few Chriftians, who had efcaped the fword of
their conquerors, took refuge in the mountains
of Afturia, and was crowned king of Oviedo.
From the time of Pelagius, to that of Alphonfo
11. who reigned in the time of Charlemagne,
the Chriftian princes were confined to a very
narrow territory. The Moors (with whom
F the
* The caufe of" Count Julian's hatred of Roderic, is faid,
by hlftorians, to have proceeded from a fenfe of the injury-
done to his daughter Florinda, or Cava, whom the king
ravifhed ; and that, to be revenged, he invited the Saracens
intb Spain. But (fays Voltaire) it is not certain, that
Roderic ravifhed Cava., Perhaps the adventure of Julian's
daughter is partly copied from that of Lucretia ; and neither
is the one nor the other properly authenticated. To call in
the Africans, there appears no pretext of a ravifnment,
which is, for the moft part, as difficult to prove, as to
rommit. Volt. Elf. Sur. IJ Hilt. Gzn.
(S2) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
the Chriflians had continual wars, and whom
they fometimes defeated) polTelTed the mofl:
cxtenfive and fertile provinces of Spain.
Italy, — Odoacer, king of the Heruli, no
fooner appeared in Italy, than he put an end to
the empire of the weft. That country, once
the miftrefs of nations, was defolated by the de-
predations and cruelties of rapacious barbari-
ans.— — The Oilrogoths, who came from the
banks of the Danube, drove out the Heruli,
feized upon Italy, after having deluged it with
blood, and fixed the feat of their empire at
Ravenna. Theodoric, their king, by a wdfe
and mild government, endeavoured to make his
new fubjeds forget their former calamities. He
left them in pofTefllon of their laws, religion,
government, and magiftrates ; referving to his
Goths only the principal military employments.
Although a barbarian, he fhewed himfelf a hu-
mane and juft prince; he defervedly got the
name of Theodoric the Great ; for though, as
is allerted by fome, he could neither read nor
write, he governed with all the prudence and
judgment of a prince perfedlly well educated.
He would not allow the children of the Goths
to ftudy, becaufe, faid he, ** after ftanding in
awe of the rod, they would tremble at the fight
of a fword." Italy was happy under his go-
vernment, which continued only fix years. —
" It is not force, but juftice, tliat ought to hold
the
Lect. IL modern history. (83)
the fceptre, (faid Theodoric to his fubjedts) you
live in the fame empire, therefore be friends 3
let the Goths love the Romans as friends and
neighbours, and let the Romans refpedl the
Goths as their defenders." Amakifonta, his
daughter, \\ ho, along with his power, inherit-
ed the virtues and talents of her father, would
fhare the throne with Theodat, her favourite;
this fhe could not do without the confent of
the great men. Upon this occafion, the Oflro-
goths, like other barbarians, lliew^ed, that they
were jealous of the right of eledling their king,
of correcting the defects of birth, and repairing
the errors of elections. 1 he perfidious and
cruel Theodat put Amalafonta, his benefadlrefs,
to death with his own hand, which caufed the
Oftrogoths to fall into difcord and confuiion.
Juftinian, emperor of Conftantinople, taking
advantage of their w eak and diilracled ftate, fent
the famous Belifarius into Italy, who put an end
to the kingdom of the Oftrogoths, and led their
king Vitiges in triumph. Totila revived their
hopes, and facked unhappy Rome ; but being
conquered by the eunuch Narfes, the Oftrogoths
difappeared in Italy, and gave place to another
race of barbarians, knov/n by the name of Lom-
bards, or Longobards. Upon their entrance into
Italy, they put all to fire and fword, and founded
a kingdom, of which Paviaand Milan were the
capitals. Alboin their king, who perifned by the
F 2 treachery
(S4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, IL
treachery of his wife Rofamond, by placing, in
the principal conquered cities, the chief ofiicers
of his army, under the name of Dukes, made
their government ariftocratical. The cruelties
of Clefis, his fuccelTor, infpired the Lomibard*
with fuch an averfion to royalty, that they de-
termined, after his death, not to chufc a king ;
in confequence of which refolution, each of the
Dukes, during the ten years the interregnum
lafted, became fovercign of his city and diftrid::
but the fear of an attack from foreign enemies,
induced the chiefs of the nation to alTemble, and
call Antaric, the fon of Clefis, to the throne.
It appears, that the fucceffion to the throne of
that people, was hereditary ; but the prince was
obliged to have his right confirmed by the na-
tron, before he could afTume the reins of govern-
ment. Some of the Lombard kings were great
princes. Rothafis compofed a code of laws, and
caufed them to be obferved in his dominions ;
{the laws of the Lombards were once famous in
Europe;) Grimoald reformed that code, and
renounced Arianifm ; Luitprand, a great king,
and a great warrior, put an end to the exarchat
of Ravenna : he, in one of his laws, condemns
the ridiculous cuftom of trial by fmgal combat,
(though the pradice of duelling took its' rife
among the Lombards ;) Afvolphus, who failed in
his ffratagems againft the arms of Pepin ; and the
unfortunate Didier, who being conquered by-
Charlemagne,
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (85)
Charlemagne, an end was put to the kingdom
of the Lombards, after having continued more
than two centuries.
Great-Britain. — The Britains were of Celtic
original, and, without doubt, came from Gaul.
The Caledonii were the Aborigines^ or fir ft in-
habitants of Scotland j ^nd the Pi(5ls, were pro-
bably, the ancient inhabitants of England, but
obliged by the Celtic Gauls to remove north-
ward. The Scots, whether Scythian adventu-
rers, or Melefians from Ireland, or of Gothic
cxtracflion, conquered the Caledonii, and gave
name to that country. The Phoenicians, the
mofi: celebrated navigators of ancient times, are
faid to have made trading voyages to the fouth-
ern parts of Britain, long before the birth of
our Saviour : but as there is no monument,
nor hiftorical facfl to prove this, it is much more
probable, that Britain was unknown to the Phoe-
nicians and ancient Greeks. The Romans were
not acquainted with it before the time of Julius
Csefar. That famous captain having comjuer-
ed the Celtic nations of Gaul and Germany,
pafTed over into Britain, in hopes, by the con-
queft of the ifland, to enrich himfelf and his
army. He had feveral fkirmifhes with the in-
habitants, but was obliged to return into France
without having effedled his purpofe. The em-
peror Claudius, came into Britain, and fubdu-
cd part of it. It was then, that Caradtacus and
F 3 Boadicia
(86) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
Boadicia held out againfl the Romans, and ftopt
the progrefs of their arms. The former was
taken prifoner and carried to Rome, but, in
Gonfideration of the noble fland he had made,
was kindly ufed ; the latter, not willing to fur-
vive the liberties of her country, put an end to
her life. Julius Agricola, being fent into
Britain by Domitian, not only made a con-
quefl of it, but carried the Roman arms into
Scotland ,- defeated Galgacus, king of the Cale-
donii on the Grampian hills, and built forts be-
tween the rivers Forth and Clyde, to curb their
incuriions. To prevent the inhabitants of Scot-
land from making inroads into England, Adrian
caufed a wall, or mound of earth, to be ereded
from Solway Frith to Tynemouth ; and Severus
afterwards ordered it to be built of Hone. From
the time that Britain became a province of the
Roman empire, it was the nurfery of their army.
The Roman lesions were ftationed in different
parts of It; and it is faid, that Conftantine the
Great was born in York.
When the barbarians poured in upon Italy,
the Roman legions were withdrawn from -Bri-
tain, and the inhabitants regained their liberty.*
Britain, abandoned by the Romans, became a
prey to the Scots and Pidis, who reduced the
Britons to the laft extremity. In vain did they
implore aid of the Romans; that once powerful
people
• The Romans were poffefled of Britain about 400 years.
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (^7)
people could now afford them none. Vortigern
called the Anglo-Saxons to his affiftance. They
came, and under the conducfl of Horfa and Hen-
gifr, drove out the Picfls and Scots ; but pleafed
with the country, and unwilling to return, they
determined to fettle in it. With this view, they
openly attacked the Britons, who, having de-
pofed Vortigern, and eledled Vortimer, his fon,
oppofed the Saxons ; but all their efforts were
to no purpofe. In vain did prince Arthur, the
hero of hfs time, defeat the Saxons in many
battles. Vidcory, at laft declared for thefe fo-
reigners, and the Britons were obliged to take
refuge in Cornwall and Wales. The refl: of the
ifland was divided into feven fmall kingdoms.*
Chriftianity was baniihed, and idolatry returned,.
There are no authentic records to prove, that
the fame feudal fy ftcm prevailed among the
Saxons, (as among other barbarians,) upon their
fettlement in Britain. They had little to fear
from foreign enemies, and nothing from the na-
tural inhabitants: they preferved their primitive
form of government, though, perhaps, it was
not juft the fame in all the kmgdoms of the Hep-
tarchy. Of this we can learn nothing from the
F 4 Saxon
* The Heptarchy was founded about the middle of the fifth
century, and confiiled of feven kingdoms, viz. that ol Kent,
SulTex, EfTex, Wcflex or Well Saxons, Mercia, Eaft AngHa,
(fo called from the A.ngle3, a German tribe, who gave name
tp England) and Northumberland.
(88) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
Saxon annals ; all we know is that their laws,
and other matters which concerned the public,
were propofed, palTed, or rejeded, in a national
aifembly.* But the Saxon Heptarchy, disjoint-
ed and weak, made no figure among the nations
of Europe. The princes of thefe petty king-
doms became jealous of each other, quarreled
about their boundaries, made war upon, and con-
tinually laid wafte each other's territories. In
fuch confufion and anarchy, there could be no fix-
ed form of government. A democracy naturally
changes to an ariftocracy, and this happened to
them The nobles ufurped an unjuft jurifdiclion
in their own eflates, and put to death, without
appeal, thofe who offended them. The body
of the nation were flaves, entirely dependent on,
the nobility, and fuperior clergy. Thus Britain
experienced the fame revolution, which had
happened to the other countries of Europe : the
government became lefs perfed:,and palfed from
the many to a few.
In carting a look upon the different kingdoms
poffeffed by the barbarians, who divided the
Roman empire among them, we are furprifed
to fee the government, every where, undergo
the fame revolutions and changes. Whence the
caufe, that people fo fond of liberty, fo jealous
of
* The Saxon national affembly, was called Wittenagsmote^
that is, an affembly of wife men ; and from that legiflativc
body, the Parliament of Britain, very probably took its rife.
Lect.il modern history. (89)
of that valuable equality they enjoyed^ \vhen in
their woods and foreil"s, ihould allow thefe to
be taken from them ? Why did they fuffer their
chieftains, whofe fbandards they had followed
of their own accord^ to become their mafters and
tyrants ? That the Romans, Gauls, and Britons,
fliould fubmit to their favage conquerors, is not
at all furprifmg ; they yielded to the fbrongeft :
but, that the Franks, the Goths, and the Saxons,
fhould have parted with their liberty, and allow-
ed their companions to enflave them, can be
accounted for, only from the nature of things.
While thefe barbarians continued in Germany,
their m^anners were iimple and fevere. Thejr
were equal in rank and fortune ,• to them luxury-
was unknown j living a frugal life, their wants
were few, and eafily fupplied. They had no
defire for wealth, the parent of effeminacy and
idlenefs ; for wealth, which corrupts both
rich and poor, the one by polTeflion, and the
other by covetoufnefs ; and, at length, fubjeds
thofe who were once on an equality, to one ano-
ther, Befides, though their clans were numer-
ous, yet they did not form a large and compad:
fociety : their tribes were divided into many
families, diftin(rt from, and independent of each
other; thefe could eafily aiTemble to deliberate
the matters which concerned them. It is eafy
to fee, that in fuch a fituation, it v/as not difficult
to preferve their liberty ; but when they, being
tranfplanted
(90) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
tranfplanted into a pleafant and fertile foil, gave
themfelves to luxury, and to thofe vices which
attend her ; then, freedom was exchanged for
flavery. They grew corrupted ; their enthufiafm
for independence died away, and an ambition of
domination feized their chiefs : fuch is the na-
tural progrefs of things human. A nation, while
poor, virtuous, and confined to a fmall extent of
territory, can preferve its liberty. Who will
attempt to rob it of fo valuable a privilege ?
Who would do it ? But when effeminacy has
unftrung the nerves of a people, when they are
ambitious of an extenfive dominion ; and if a
thirft for riches takes pofTellion of the heart,
then each acquifition they make, is a ftep to-
wards flavery, and their liberty lies at the mercy
of him who would deftroy it, Thus, thefc
haughty barbarians, by loiing their manly and
auftere virtue, were, fome by degrees, and fome
all at once, deprived of liberty, one of the great-
eft and bell gifts beflowed upon mankind.
Legijlation of the Barbarians, — The great end of
legiflation fhould be, by affording protection to
all, to fee u re the life, liberty, and property of
each individual; to make men free, by an obedi-
ence to juft laws; to employ, without eonffraint,
for the good of the community, the wealth, the
flrength, and even the life of all the members.
To confine the will of men with their own con-
fent i to make them ad in their feveral depart-
ments
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (91)
msnis for the advantage of the whole ; to oblige
them to punifli themfelves ; to obey, not the
commands of any perfon, but the authority of
law ; to becofne, under an apparent fubjedlion,
fo much the more free; as none is deprived
of any part of his liberty, but that of doing
hurt to others : fuchare the wonders legiflation
produces. To it, men are indebted for juftice
and liberty. But our anceftors had no idea
of a legiflation of this fort. To them, the
profperity and good order of fociety, were ima-
ginary things. Revenge was their fole motive
for the punifliment of crimes. The perfon
offended, was he alone, who had a right to punifh
him that committed the offence. Flowever
heinous the crime might be, he could, if he
thought proper, commute the punifhment for
a pecuniary compenfation. In moil cafes, the
judges, whether civil or criminal, were forced
to allow the parties to decide their differences
"with the fword. To give up to any man, as the
minifter of law, the right of judging what fort of
punifhment the aggreffor deferved, was, in the
opinion of thefe haughty barons, a degradation
of their honour. They knew no other tribunal
than their fword. Miftaken notions of liberty
produced thefe WTong ideas and falfe condudl.
They were afraid, that by fubmiflion to laws,
they might be enflaved by fome one of their
equals. They were ftrangers to this truth; that
he
(92) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II.
he who fubmits willingly to juft laws, and be-
comes dependent on that fociety, from which
he receives fupport and happinefs, is free in the
proper fenfe of the word. A prejudice, which
arofe at firfc from ignorance, and was afterwards
flrengthened by paiTion, was the fource of thofc
diforders which afflicted Europe for feveral cen-
turies. But it will be faid, our feudal anceftors
were not without laws. Hiliorians fpeak of the
faliquelaw, of the Saxon laws, and of the laws
of the Lombards. True, they fpeak of them;
but thefe laws did not deferve the name. Shall ,
we allow ourfelves to be impofed on by words ?
To give the facred name of laws to barbarous
maxims and cufloms, to abfurd prejudices, falfc
traditions, foolifh and fuperflitious opinions, a
difgrace to human reafon, would be a proof of
our ignorance of the true interefls of fociety.
The falique law was nothing but a flatute, which
fixed the different fums of money to be given as
a compenfation for different crimes. Theft,
robbery, manflaughter, and even murder, were
by that law, valued at a certain price ; fo that a
perfon who had money, might commit as many
crimes as he pleafed. What kind of check to
wickednefs ! The jurifprudence of feudal times,
fo far from being milJ and humane ; was, in
my opinion, the moft cruel, and contrary to
good government, that poflibly could be ; be-
caufe, it gave occafion to the multiplication of
crimes.
Lect. it. modern history. (^2)
crimes. Thefe laws abounded with abfurdities !
A wound upon the head was lefs feverely punifli-
cd, than an injury done to a dead body. A
greater price was fet upon the head of an arch-
biiliop, than upon that of a king. In indecifive
criminal caufes, the law allowed the perfon ac-
cufed, to purge himfelf by oath; and he not
only gave his oath, but was obliged to produce
a certain number of witnelTes to fwear with him.
We are told, that Gontran, king of Burgur^dy,
entertained doubts of the legitimacy of Clotaire;
to remove which, his mother Fredegonde, and
three hundred witnefTes fwore, and alfo three
bifliops, upon whofe oath the greateft flrefs was
laid, that Clotaire was the fon of Chilperic.
How abfurd fuch a proof in an affair of this
kind 1 However, it removed every fufpicion.
What can we think of the proofs of cold and hot
water, of red-hot iron, which were called the
judgment of God? Surely they are a flriking
evidence of the folly and ignorance of barbarous
times.* We fhall have occafion afterwards to
take
* The proof, by cold water, began with faying mafs : the
perfon accufed received the communion ; the cold water wai
bleffed and exorclfed, and then tlie accufed was thrown bound
into it; if he fank to the bottom, he was deemed innocent; if
he fwam on the furface. he was thought to be guilty. The
judgment of God by hot water was, by making the accufed
plunge his naked arm into a veiTel full of boiling water, from
th^ bottom of which, he was to bring up a confec rated ring.
The.
(94) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. it
take notice of the many evils, which this fuper-*
flition, in union with the moft flupid ignorance,
produced. The laws of the Saxons were no
better; by thefe, a pecuniary fine was allowed
as a compenfation for crimes. A perfon's life
was fixed at a certain price, and his rank in fo-
ciety determined the fum. By a law of Ethel-
bert, an adulterer v/as obliged to make atone-
ment to the injured party, by purchafing him
another wife : in a word, the laws and cuftoms
which then prevailed, in almoft the whole of
Europe, were the fame. The laws of the Lom-
bards were marked with fimiliar charadters of
folly, fuperfiition, and ignorance. Luitprand
was convinced of their abfurdit/; but, as the
Lombards were much attached to them, he was
obliged to tolerate an abufe he could not amend.
In Spain, fuperftition introduced a mofl" cruel
legiflation : hence thofe fanguinary laws, by
which the Jews were obliged, under pain of
death, to receive baptifm : hence that impious
oath, the kings of Spain were forced to take
when they mounted the throne, that they w^ould
put
The judge in prefence of the clergy and people, inclofed the
perfon's arm in a bag, which he fealed with his own feal ; and
if no fymptoms of burning appeared on his arm, three days
after, he was reputed innocent. The third proof was, that
of a red-hot bar of iron, which the accufed was obliged to
carry in his hand, the length of nine paces. In this proof, to
deceive, was more difficult than in that of the others; therefore,
very few, if any, fubmitted to it. Volt.
Lect. II. modern history. (95)
put in force all the laws made againfi: that un-
fortunace people. In fine, without being more
particular, we may obferve, that a commentary
upon the feveral codes of the anceftors of modern
Europeans, would be a mad fevere fatire upon
their manners, religion, and good fenfe*
Manners of the Barbarians, — The government
and laws of our anceftors, being of this com-
plexion, we may eafily judge of the purity and
mildnefs of their manners. They were favage
in the period I am fpeaking of. Kings were
then monfters of debauchery, cruelty, and fu-
perftition; honefty and truth were banifhed
from fociety ; humanity was not known or felt ;
the wars of kmgs, the feuds of nobles, ftained
every land with perfidies, treafons, afTafTmations
and murders; a brutal ambition, a favage and
cruel fuperftition, formed the character of that
iron age. The annals of France prefent us with
the cruelties of Clovis, the founder of the French
nation ; with the fanguinary condudl of his
four fons, all of w hom were ftained with the
moft atrocious crimes : and that kingdom, un-
der many of his fuccefTors, was nothing but a
theatre of blood. A king of pure and mild
manners, was then a kind of prodigy. Britain
and Spain were afBicl:ed with continual civil
wars, the caufe of the greateft evils to nations.
Indeed, the reign of the Goths and Lombards in
Italy, eafes the mind a little, after having been
fatigued
(96) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1 1,
fatigued v/ith a detail of thefe cruelties. We are
pleafed with the wifdom and humanity of Theo-
doric in the government of his fubjeds ; and,
we would have been more fo, had he not llained
his hands with the innocent blood of Symma-
chus and Boetius, two men, Vv ho, by their learn-
ing and virtue, did honour to the age in which
they lived. The annals of the Lombards, pre-
fent us with wife and humane princes, who feem
to have been acquainted with the valuable doc-
trine of toleration. Though they themfelves
were of the Arian communion, yet they allow-
ed liberty of confcience to the Catholics. =
Their laws in general, were lefs abfurd,and their
manners of a milder cafl, than thofe of other
barbarians. Whence the difference ? from this
no doubt, that in Italy they found more abun-
dant means of inilru6tion.
Religion, — The Chriftian religion is pure,
mild, and benevolent. The barbarians, who
fettled in the Roman provinces, embraced this
religion. Now, we ihould naturally imagine,
that it would have foftened their favage man-
ners; but the contrary happened. Thefe peo-
ple were already infected with fuperftition in
the extreme, which, uniting with the dod:rines
and ceremonies of Chrillianity, produced a
flrange mixture of devotion and folly, of cruel-
ty and zeal. By the converfion of the barbari-
ans, the clergy gained, but the Chriflian religion
loft.
Lect. II. IVIODERN HISTORY.
loft. Though they changed the objedl of their
worfiiip, they fiill retained the fame fpirit.
The Druids among the Gauls and Britons, the
priefls of Thor and Woden, among the Ger-
mans and Scandinavians, exercifed an abfolute
power over the minds of men. When thefe
barbarians became Chriftians, they retained the
fame veneration for the priefthood ; and the
clergy, ftrangers to piety and virtue, by abufing
that refpedt, favoured fuperftition, and increaf-
cd it- Such of the barbarians, as were confe-
crated to the fervice of the altar, brought their
ignorance and prejudices to it. Befides, the
fpirit of primitive Chriftianity v^as much chang-
ed. The Chriflian emperors had enriched the
church, ^nd granted her many privileges and
irhmunities; thefe temporal advantages relaxed
church difcipline, and the fall of the empire
haltened its decline. The people, loaded with
difbrefles, fought refuge in religion, gave them-
felves up to her miniflers; and the clergy made
ufe of this afcendancy, to increafe their power
and wealth. Hence, the light of truth difap-
peared, many prejudices fprang up, and the paf-
lions, united to ignorance, perverted the fpirit
of the gofpel. The donations of the barbarians
to the church, increafed the evil. Many of thefe
adventurers, polluted with crimes, and enriched
by rapine, thought themfelves happy, if, by
giving a part of their plunder to the clergy, they
J Q couid
(9S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II.
could obtain abfolution, which they believed in
their power to bellow. And, as in thofe days^
money could procure the pardon of crimes com-
mitted againfl: fociety, fo they imagined, that
donations to the church, could purchafe the
kingdom of heaven. Hence thofe mod addicted
to rapine, violence and debauchery, were the
mofl generous. Avarice, in their opinion, was
the chief attribute of the Divinity. Such a flow
of v/ealth lavifhed upon the clergy, rendered
them fo powerful, as to make a king of France
complain, " That the bifhops were kings." —
Indeed, the bifhops became, by the union of their
wealth with religion, the arbiters of kingdoms,
difpofed of crowns, and regulated the affairs of
Hate. It was necelTary to confult them, as the
little knowledge then in Europe centred in
them; and, as an oppofition took place between
the interefts of the clergy and laity, fo this pro-
duced a jealoufy, which was the caufe of many
diforders. It was then, that the minifters of
religion, had recourfe to artifice againft th^ir
more powerful enemies, invented ftories to
frighten them, employed fpiritual arms to de-
fend their temporal polTefTions, and changed the
mild language of charity into wicked impreca-
tions. The benevolent religion of Jefus breath-
ed only terror in the mouths of its miniflers.
HarneiTed priefts defended their own territories
by force of arms, or invaded thofe of others.
T@
Lect. IL modern history. (99)
To the thunder of the churchy the occaiion of
many wars and revolutions, they joined alfo the ^
aid of thefword. They encouraged ignorance,
and difcouraged knowledge, that they might
reign over the minds of men with a more abfo-
lute fway. They made a myftery of every
thing; truth could not appear, and reafon was
en (laved by fu perdition.
Had the abufes which crept into religion^
been productive of no calamities ; had the fu-
perflitious errors, which fo long infedted the
modern nations of Europe, no dangerous influ-
ence on fociety, we fhould have omited a detail,
fo difgraceful, not only to religion, but to her
minifters. Chriftianity confidered in its true
point of view, is a pure and holy religion, wor-
thy the veneration of all men ; its dodlrines are
divine, its morality noble, perfect, and fublime^
The precept of univerfal charity or love, fo pro-
per to procure and fecure the happinefs of man-
kind, is itfelf, infinitely more valuable, than
all the wifdom of philofophers. Its worfhip, not
that which the imaginations of menhavedevifed,
but that which its Divine Author has prefcri-
bed, is fimple and pure, comes from the heart,
and is conformable to reafon : its dodlrines,
Avhich ignorance wrefts and defaces, exalt the
foul and ennoble man. In a w^ord, to him who
cultivates an acquaintance with the fpirit of the
Chriftian religion, it appears grand and divine.
G 2 It
(lOo) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. It
It is not this fpirit that afflidted the earth with
many calamities ; no, it was a fpirit of fuperfti-
tion, which foments crimes, by appealing re-
morfe ; which, to the practice of the eflential
duties af morality, fubftitutes a heap of vain
ceremonies; which weakens truth, and era-
dicate* every juft principal. From this im-
pure, fourcc, flowed thofe evils under which
modern nations were fo long weighed down^
and from which fome are not yet emancipated.
Ignorance produced falfe piety; avarice, chi-
cane, and rapine increafed, and brought on
the ruin of manners. Intolerance and fanati-
cifm united, overv/helmed Europe with confu-
fion and diftrefs. Millions of human victims
were butchered in the name of the God of peace;
and a powder, calling itfelf fpiritual, was feen,
overturning thrones, arming fubjedls againft
their fovereigns, and creating many troubles to
fociety. Let us purfue the thread of thefe
calamities; to do fo, is painful to a heart not
devoid of humanity ; but a regard to truth, im-
pof es the tafk. Men fliould be made acquainted
with the abufes, which religion, ill underftood^
has been, and may ftill be the caufe of. For-
mer fcenes of defolation, will, we hope, never be
renewed; yet they may happen. A fpirit of
intolerance and fanaticifm is not yet wholly ex-
tind: ; let us then always dread the re-kindling
of a flame, which might again fet the world on fire.
. It
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (loi)
It was during the ninth century, that the
eCcIefiaftical authority produced a fatal revolu-
tion in civil fociety. The hillory of the modern
nations of Europe prefents us with an abfurd
mixture of things facred with things profane.
The power of bifliops increafed with their
wealth, and they infenlibly ufurped an authority
which became fatal to princes. They fet them-
felves above the laws, and when culpable, even
kings durft not punifh them. England and
France furnifli proofs of this. Biiliops were
in the courts of princes, ^nd at the head of their
councils ; they formed plots, intrigued, held
the reins of government, and counterbalanced
the royal authority. In Spain, the cradle of
ccclefiaftical tyranny, councils of the clergy de-
cided the moll: important national affairs,
depofed kings, and obliged them to fubmit to
the moil humiliating penance. The monks
aded a no lefs confpicuous part. Miflaken
notions 'of religion and the example of fome
gre!it men, who embraced a monaftic life, were
the caufe of their numerous increafe in the
Chriitian world ; and fuperfliition reigned in the
monafteries with abfolute fway. In thofe dark
ages, v/itchcraft and enchantnient were popular
do(flrines ; and the monks flrenohtened tliefe
abfurd prejudices. Famine, peltilence, tem-
pers, and ficknefs were attributed to evil fpirits.
A gloomy terror feized the human mind ; and
G 3 men
(102) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
men willingly allowed thenifelves to be the
dupes of cheats and knaves, who ruled them with
a rod of iron. From thefe abufes, fprang an
evil, which long afflicled fociety ; we mean the
temporal power of the fee of Rome.
Temporal power of ike Popes, — The bi^ops
of Rome had, prior to this period, afiumed
a fpiritual authority over the clergy: they
were confulted in matters of religion, and
their anfwers conlidered as oracles. Other
Chriftian bifhops, formerly on a level, were
obliged in the end to acknowledge them their
iuperior. The popes, to incrcafe their power,
fent miffionaries every where to found new
churches. — Hiflory informs us, that Auftin, a
monk, was fent by St. Gregory into Britain, to
convert the Anglo-Saxons to the Romiifh faith ;
St. Patrick founded the church of Ireland, and
St. Boniface was the apoftle of Gremany. —
As they received their m.ifTion from Romte, fo
they did not fail to exalt the prerogatives of
the holy fee, and to pcrfuade their converts of
the fupremacy of its bifhops. Moreover, the
popes were always ready to cajole thofe princes,
whom they thought necelTary to the accom-
plifhment of their am.bitious views. The pri-
mitive bifiiops of Ren: e, had great influence over
the inhabitants of that city ; their church was
rich ; they were a father to the poor, and ad-
miniflered comfort to the afflicted j but it was
an
Lect. it. modern history. (103)
an influence, which their piety and benevolence
procured them. They v/ere as yet without
temporal power. They acknowledged them-
felves fubje<fl to the emperors, and it was necef-
fary to have their election confirmed by the
Exarch of Ravenna. Not but that they pri-
vately afpired to the fovereignty of Rome ; but
the time was not yet come. Gregory III. began
this revolution. Leo Ifauricus ordered all
images to be deftroyed ; and this attack, upon
what the people had a great veneration for, made
them his enemies. The Pope, always upon
the watch, feizes the opportunity, excommuni-
cates the emperor, and erafes his name from the
dyptics. * The people, after the example of
their paf!:or, broke the emperor's ftatues, and
threw off all dependence on Conflantinople. —
One enemy ftill remained ; this was the Lom-
bards, v;ho, being poflefled of the greateft pare
of Italy, threatened to make themfelves maders
of Rome. Gregory had recourfe to Charles
Martel, promifes to make him conful of Rome,
and to annihihitc the power of a heretical prince.
He complies with his requell ; but death, who
cut off both the pope and the emperor, put a
flop to the execution of this proje6l. Zachary,
who fucceeded Gregory III. in the pontificate,
purfued his predecelFor's plan. He, by bring-
G 4 ing-
* Dyptics were a regiller, in which the names of the em-.
perors, bifhops, and other holy men, were written.
(104) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II.
ing over Pepin to his fide, erecfted a bulwark
againd the Lombards. By a deciiion in favour
of Pepin, he deprives the lawful fovereign of
the crown of France, to place it on the head of
an ufurper. In acknowledgement for this, Pe-
pin, at the earnell defire of Stephen III. marches
into Italy, defeats the Lombards, grants them
peace upon conditions, and gives the exarchate
to the holy See. Aftolphus foon breaks the
treaty. The pope writes a famous letter in the
name of St. Peter, to Pepin. That prince mar-
ches again into Italy, and obliges the Lombards
to reftore the exarchate to the pope, referving
to himfelf the rights of fovereignty. From
that period may the temporal power of the
popes be dated.
Patriarchs ofC, P, — If Rome had a pope, Con-
ftantinople had a patriarch. They were rivals
to one another. The head of the eafliern church
exercifcd an almon" equal authority in fpirituai
matters. The fecond in rank, he afpired to be
the firft. The Greek church coniidered the
primacy of the bifhop of Rome, as a prerogative
granted to the capital of the empire, not a right
belonging to St, Peter's chair. But Rome,
deferted by the emperors, and plundered by
barbarians, feemed no longer to deferve this
pre-eminence. From that time, many of the
bifnops of Conjflantinople, made ufe of every
iirtifice, to become head of the church. John,
fur-
Lect.il modern history. ,{io5)
furnamcd the Fader, did not conceal his pre-
tenfions : his external piety procured him the
efteem and protection of the emperors ; his fad-
ing and other auflerities recommended him to
the monks ; and his great charity made the peo-
ple adore him. In poiTefiion of a great repu-
tationj he calls a council, and takes the title of
univerfal bifhop. In vain does Rome threaten ;
the patriarch continues immoveable ; he pre-
ferves the title, and tranfmits it to his fuccef-
fors. Then were fown the feeds of that great
fchifm, which in time produced a feparation
between the Latin and Greek churches. Thofe
patriarchs alfo enjoyed fo confiderable a fhare
of influence in date affairs, that they often
made the emperors tremble. The ceremony
of coronation was performed by them; and
they took advantage of this privilege to impofc
laws on their maders. Macedonius would not
crown Anadafius, ilntil he gave a promife in
writing, to fupport the decrees of the council of
Chalcedon. The eadern empire was much
convulfed in this period. Theological dif-
putes didurbed the date ; and no fooner was
one fed fupprelTed, than another arofe ; hence,
hatred and civil commotions weakened the
government. — The emperors, like their big-
goted fubjedls, engaged in theological wrang-
lings, while they allowed^ the Saracens to de-
prive them of the fmeil provinces of Ada and
Africa,
(io6) MODERN HISIORY. Lect.IL
Africa. Great evils flow from an intolerant
fpirit ; a fpirit, which, alas ! has too much pre-
vailed in every period of the Chriflian church,
and among all feels of ChriHians !
Anglo-Saxons. — Egbert united the petty king-
doms of the Heptarchy, and England became
more confpicuous among the nations of Europe.
The Anglo-Saxons, united under one king, ha-
ving the fame language, cufloms, laws, and re-
ligion, might have promifed themfelves peace,
and that they would become formidable to their
neighbours ; but thefe hopes were foon blafted.
For the Danes, or Normans, having fpread their
depredations in France, landed in England,
and, though often repulfed, and fometimes dri-
ven entirely out of the country, yet, by ftill re-
turning in greater numbers, they kept the in-
liabitants in continual alarm. Thefe barbai ians,
having once gotten footing in Britain, fo har-
raffed the Anglo-Saxon kings, that they were
obliged to divide the kingdom with them, and
they became at lafl, mafters of the whole.
Alfred, — Of all the kings of the Anglo-Saxon
line, Alfred Mas the greatefl and the befl. He
was the fourth fon of Ethelwolf, and fucceeded
his brother Ethered, who died of the wounds he
received in a battle with the Danes. His father,
a weak and fuperftitious prince, went in pilgri-
mage to Rome, and took Alfred with him,
being then only fix years old. It was in the
reign
Lect. IT. MODERN HISTORY. (107)
reign of Ethelwolf, that the Englifh clergy re-
claimed the tithes, (which had been taken
from themj as theirs by divine right. Hither-
to their pretenfions had been rejedled ; but fee-
ing a weak prince upon the throne, the people
humbled by their many lolTes, and dreading a
new invafion of the Danes, they laid hold of the
favourable moment to obtain their defires. —
Ethelwolf alTcmbled the dates of the king-
dom, and made that important donation to the
church. He died foon after, and his kingdom
was divided between Ethelbald and Ethelbert,
his two eldeft fons, who dying without iilue, the
third brother fucceeded ; and he being taken off
in the manner above-mentioned, Alfred the
great, found himfelf, at twenty years of age, the
fovereign of a kingdom, torn, laid walte, and
daily threatened with utter ruin.
Alfred the Great, the true founder of the
Englifti nation, united in himfelf, ail thofe vir-
tues, which form a great and good prince. His
qualities were not of that kind, which excite
only a barren admiration ; but, being ufeful
and refpedlable, were fuch, as have endeared
his memory to pofteriry. No fooner had he
mounted the throne, to which the good wifhes
of all called him, than he fliewed the courage
and intrepidity of a hero, in the defence of his
country. The Danes were laying wafte the
fouthern provinces of England. Alfred, having
raifed
(io8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. II.
raifed a few troops in hafte, puts himfelf at their
head, marches againft thefe barbarians, defeats,
and obliges them to leave the kingdom. This
vidiory was attended but with a moment's re-
fpite. New fwarms of robbers from the north,
joined their companions ; and, by dividing into
different parties, increafed their depredations.
One of thefe parties entered Dorfetlhire, but
were fovigoroufly purfued by Alfred, that they
were obliged to bind themfelves, by treaty, to
leave .the ifland. However, the Danes, unwill-
ing to relinquifh their prey, would not be bound
by promifes. They, without any pretext, attack
Alfred, rout his army, and feize upon Exeter,
This treachery, and the dangerous iituation his
fubjedls were in, adds frefh vigour to Alfred's
courage. Ele raifes a new army, fights eight
battles, and reduces his favage enemy to great
extremity. The Danes offer propofals of peace,
and Alfred, providing they will prevent any
more barbarians from landing, confents to their
fettlement in England i but, to his furprife, is
informed, that another body of enemies had
landed, during the pending of the treaty, and
were committing great ravages. This news
threw tha Anglo-Saxons into defpair, as think-
ing heaven had devoted them to deflru6lion.—
Some take refuge in Wales, fome cfcape to the
continent, others fubmit to their conquerors. —
In vain did Alfred exhort his fubjeds to make
ore
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (109)
one effort more to defend their prince, their
country, and their liberty. Fear unftrung their
nerves; the diftrefs oftheir prince made no im-
preffion; and he, to avoid his enemies, fees
himfeif obliged to exchange the infignia of roy-
alty, for the peafant's drefs. How pleafing to
the feelings of a virtuous mind, to attend this
good, but unfortunate king, in his lonely retreat ;
to fee him tend fome cows, and fubmit to a re-
proof from the cow-herd's wife, becaufe he had
allov/ed her cakes to be burnt. Such details
are not below the majefty of hiftory ; for, a per-
fon*s conduc5l, in certain fituations and circum-
Itances of life, is the only true criterion of his
real character : and every thing is valuable in
the life of a prince, who, polfefling dignity and
virtue, is reduced to a precarious condition, fo
much below his rank. Few kings have Ihewn
talents for government, or have been a father to
their people ; becaufe, fev/ kings, were like Al-
fred, educated in the fchool of adverfity. Alfred,
though deprived of his kingdom, was ftill in
hopes that he would recover it» When he
found that his enemies had given over the pur -
fuit, he retired with fome of his officers into
a bog. Having fortified themfelves there, he
made frequent fallies upon the Danes. The
fuccefs which attended thefe little excurfions,
raifed the courage of his friends, and made them
hope for victory, when they fhould come to a
more
(no) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
more decifive adlion. At length a fortunate
event drew him from his retreat. Oddun earl
of Devonfnire, had defeated a large body of
Danes, and taken their famous enchanted ftand-
ard, in which their hopes of vidtory were placed.
Alfred, overjoyed to fee the courage of his fub-
jecfcs revive, lays hold of the favourable mo-
ment; but before he would hazard a battle,
(being dreifed like a harper) reconnoitres the
enemy's camp. Having difcovered all he
wanted to know, he fends privately to his moft
powerful fubjeds, and defires them to join him
immediately. The Englifh haflen from all
parts to the place of rendezvous ; they rejoice
to fee once more their king fo dear to them,
(whom they thought dead) and befeech him to
lead them to viclory, and liberty Alfred puts
himfelf at their head, marches againfl the ene-
my, and attacks them in their camp. They,,
though more in number, make but a feeble
ftand. The greatefl: part are put to the fword^
and the remains of the Danifh army furrender
themfelves prifoners to Alfred ; who, no lefs
generous than brave, takes them under his pro-
tedion, grants them life, and permits them, on
condition they will embrace Chriftianity, to
fettle in the defolated provinces. Thefe con-
ditions were accepted ; and Alfred, freed from
his enemies, turns his mind to eflablifh order
and good government in his kingdom.
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. ( 1 1 1 }
In this work, which promotes and fecures a
nation's happinefs, Alfred difplayed the mod
confummate talents. He rebuilds the cities and
towns ruined by the Danes, eflabliflies a militia
for the defence of the kingdom, arms his fub-
jeds, puts a part of them to garrifon the forts
he had built, and orders the reft to be ready to
march at the leafl alarm ; and, while he takes
thefe precautions, agriculture is riot negledled.
Convinced that the farmer is more ufeful to a
nation than the foldier, he encourages the culti-
vation of land. He created (if the expreflion
is proper) the Englifh marine. By his wife
activity, a hundred and twenty velTels were
equiped, and the Danes attacked upon their own
element. By thefe wife meafures, Alfred either
fubdues or expels the barbarians. But his king-
dom was afflided with other evils, which had
fprung up, and become inveterate ; thefe were
the want of police and regular fubjedtion. The
country was covered with bands of Danes, who,
accuftomed to live by pillage, and ftrangers to
induflry, were every day committing ad:s of vio-
lence. Nay^ the Anglo-Saxons themfel ves, redu-
ced to poverty, led the fame kind of life. Citizens
plundered and ruined their fellow citizens. Evils
fo numerous, and deftru6tive to the welfare of
fociety, demanded an effedlual remedy, and
Alfred found one in his vigilance and adtivity.
He made laws, which though fevere, were
never-
(112) MODERN HISTORY. Legt. JL
neverthelefs neceflary to check diforders fo hurt-
ful to the nation. He eflablilhed courts of juf-
tice : to him England is indebted for the ap-
pointment of juries, a moft admirable inftitution
for the prefervation of the natural rights of men,
and for an equitable adminiftration of juftice.
Alfred's Uws and regulations had a quick and
powerful effect. Violence, depredation, and
robbery immediately ceafed. This great prince
however, had a facred regard for the liberties
of his people: "it is right (fays he in his lalt
will) that the Englifh be always as free as theif
thoughts."
Having provided for the fafety of his king-
dom, and brought his fubjecfts to fubmit to be
governed by jud and equitable laws, he directed
his views to what gives luftre and happinefs to a
nation. The temper of the A nglo-Saxons was ftill
barbarous, and their manners unrefined, becaufe
England was buried in the darknefs of igno-
rance. The Danes had deftroyed the monaf-
teries, killed or difperfed the monks, and burnt
their libraries. Not the leaft veftige of fciencc
remained ; none could explain the fervice of the
church, which was then in Latin. To banifli
ignorance, Alfred invites learned men from every
part of Europe, eftablifhes fchools for the in-
ftrudion of youth, founds or repairs the univer-
lity of Oxford, endows it with a revenue and
privileges, and confers employments both in
church
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (113)
church and ftate, only on thofe, who had made
progrefs in the fciences. Beiides thofe means,
fo proper to excite a fpirit of emulation, his
own example had great effedl. Though taken
up with a multiplicity of affairs, he found time
for ftudy. It is almoit incredible to conceive,
how this hero and legiflator, who fought fifty-
fix battles by fea and land, could, in the courfe
of fo aclive a life, acquire a greater degree of
knowledge, and compofe more books, than
literary men, who dedicate their whole time
to ftudy.
This prince encouraged the mechanical arts
and manufadlures ; commerce became more ex-
tenfive, and the Englifh, feeing the produce
of the Eaft Indies brought into Britain, were
taught to have a proper regard for juftice and
induflry, which are the foul of trade, and the
caufe of fecial happinefs.
To fay that Alfred, next to Charlemagne, was
the greateft prince Europe had feen for many
Centuries, would not be doing juftice to his
charadtcr* Without the faults of that emperor,
he was fuperior to him in talents and virtue.-—
Ambition made Charles an intolerant and cruel
ufurper. In Alfred it was a noble paflion,
employed in a juft caufe, the defence of his
country. Educated in the fchool of adverfity,
he was a formidable warrior, a king beloved, the
protedor of juftice, the fupport of the arts, and
the friend of virtue.
H His
f t H) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, IL
His fon Edward I. inherited his father's
military talents, and often exercifed them with
fuccefsy both againfl: the Danes, fettled in Eng-
land, and againfl thofe that continually came
from the north. After his deaths the nation
made choice of Adelftan, his natural fon, to fuc-
ceed him. The lawful heir was too young to
govern a nation, always expofed to foreign and
domeftic wars ; and Adelftan, by the fuccefs of
his arms and the wdfdom of his government,
juftified the propriety of their choice. He op-
pofed the Danes with courage and fuccefs ; was
a friend to commerce, to promote which he
conferred the rank of gentleman upon every
merchant, who made tw^o voyages into diftant
countries. His fon Edmund had not time to
fhew whether he would be a good or a bad king,
being murdered at a convivial entertainment,
foon after his acceUion to the throne. Edredy
v/ho fucceeded him, kept the Danes in awe.
He was a brave prince, but much to blame for
allowing himfelf to be the dupe of the famous^
Dunftan. That monk had obtained a high re-
putation by his external fandtity. His lingular
mode of life, and the ridiculous ftories told of
him, (which, in thofe dark ages, were believed
as gofpel) made him the idol of the common
people. We, who live in more enlightened
times, fmile at the flory of the apparition of the
devil to that monk, in the fhape of a beautiful
woman, to tempt his chaftity ; nor do we believe
Dunftan
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (115)
Dunftan fo impolite, as to catch him by the
nofe with red-hot pinchers, till he roared out
for pain, to the great terror of the neighbour-
hood. We may reafonably conclude, that the
devil, after fo difagreeable a reception, would
not trouble the monk any more. However that
may be, fo fignal a victory over his enemy, pro-
cured Dunflan the veneration of the people, and
the confidence of his prince. Raifed by Edred
to an eminent place in the church, he threw
England into confufion, by forbidding the
monks and clergy to marry. Edred, the tool
of his ambition, enforced this abfurd reforma-
tion, and the monks became dangerous to his
fucceflbrs. — We read, with indignation, of the
infolent treatment Edwy received from Dun-
Han, and Odo, Archbifliop of Canterbury, who
tore him from the embraces of his wife, the
beautiful Elgiva, In vain did Edwy, to re-
venge the affront, banifh Dunftan : his cabal
made loud complaints : Edwy is defpifed and
infulted : Odo feizes the queen, disfigures her
face with a red-hot iron, and fends her in ba-
nifhment into Ireland. Edwy, obliged to con-
fent to a divorce, is no lefs the vic^lim of the
monk's rage. Elgiva is murdered in his armsj
and himfelf excommunicated and dethroned.—^
While the human mind continued fettered with
ignorance, and the rights of men not known and
properly defined, thofe, who called themfelves
H 2 the
(n6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
the minifters of Jesus Christ, by a condudl
diametrically oppofite to his religion, lliewed
themfelves to be the fervants of the devil.
The Danes ftill continued to invade England ;
for though Edgar flruck them with fuch terror,
that during his reign they feldom appeared, yet
Ethelred, the fon of the cruel Elfrida, Edgar's
fecond wife, allowed them, by his daftardly
Gondud, to polTefs themfelves of Britain.
A valiant prince would have driven thefe bar-
barians to their Ihips, or perifhed in. the at-
tempt ; but, inftead of fuch noble efforts, he
hired them with money to depart ; and, when
that had not the deiired effed, he cruelly refolved
to murder all the Danes fettled in England, which.
was accordingly done, they being ail malTacred
in one day. A barbarity fo horrid plunged the
kingdom into new calamities. Sueno king^
of Denmark, haftened with a numerous army,
to revenge the death of his countrymen.-
The Anglo-Saxons were defeated, and Ethelred»
with his two fons, Alfred and Edward, obliged
to take ihelter in Normandy. Canute, the va-
liant fon of Sueno, triumphed over the vigorous
efforts of Edmund Ironlide ; and, by his many
virtues, conciliated the Anglo-Saxons to his
government. When he and his children were
dead, the Saxon line of kings became once more
the fovereigns of Britain. Alfred the foa
of Ethelred, mounts the throne, buL being foon
after
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (i 17)
after murdered by the traitor Goodwin, his
brother Edward fucceeds him. Having been
educated in the court of Normandy, he filled
England with Normans, to whom, in preference
to his natural fubjedls, h^ gave the moft honour-
able and lucrative employments. His condudl
offends the Englifh; Goodwin revolts, and
obliges him to fend the Normans home. -
The reign of Edward the ConfefTor is worthy of
notice only, for an expedition againft Macbeth
who murdered Duncan, king of Scotland, and
ufurped his throne.* Edv/ard's indifcreet vow,
to abftain from the embraces of his wife, was
the caufe of frefh troubles to England, and his
death, called forth the ambition of two rivals.
Edward died childlefs, and Harold, the fon
of earl Goodwin, who had married the heirefs
oftheDanifh kings, takes polTeffion of the throne
as though he had been the lawful heir. The
Englifh nation willingly accept him for their
king, and pay no regard, either to the jufl
claim of Edgar Atheling, the undoubted heir of
the Anglo-Saxon kings, or to the pretenfions
of William the Bailard, duke of Normandy.
William pretended, that Edward, while he was
on a vifit to the Englifh court, had made a will
in his favour; and that Harold, whom he freed
from prifon, had yielded to him his right to the
H 3 crown
* Vide the tragedy of Macbeth, one of the inimitable
Shakefpear's beft hiftorlcal plays.
f 1 1 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
crown of England. Be that as it may, Wiliiam-j
by his amballadorSj commanded Harold to lay
down his kingly title and powers and the anfwer
being inch as he expe(fi:ed, thefe two rivals pre-
pared to determine their rights by the fword. —
With refped to William, the enterprife was
bold and hazardous. The Englilh were a for-
midable nation, with a courageous and ambiti-
ous prince at their head. The fate of war is
uncertain. Thefe obftacles, fo far from intimi-
dating, did but the more invigorate William's
courage. Crowds of adventurers fiock to his
flandard, and he foon has an army compofed
of chofen warriors, ready to conquer or die.
Every thing was favourable to William. The
fpirit of chivalry, which braved every danger,
was then at its height in Europe; the Normans
had every where been fucccfsful; the minority
of the king of France ; the protedion and appro-
bation of the emperor and pope. Alexander
II. who then filled the pontifical chair, declares
Harold an ufurper, excommunicates him and
his adherents, and, to encourage William, fends
him a confecrated banner, with a ring, adorned
with fome of St. Peter's hair. " Thus (as Hume
judicioufly obferves) an enterprife, concerted
with ambitious views, and the execution of which
mull be attended with injuftice and violence,
was covered with the great cloak of religion.
William fcts fail from Valery with a numer-
ous
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (119)
ous fleet; and an army of (ixty thoufand chofen
warriors, lands upon the coaft of Suflex, and
foon after comes to a decifive battle,* at a place
called Haftings in that county. The fight con-
tinued from morning to funfet ; and Harold,
after performing prodigies of valoyr, was fiain
with two of his brothers, and left to the more
fortunate William the viiflory and the crown.
The conqueror marches to London with the
pope*s banner difplayed; the principal inha-
bitants m.eet him at the gates, and offer him
a crown, which they could not keep from him.
Crowned at Weftminifter, in the prefence of
many of the Engliih and Norman nobility,
William reduces the reft of the kingdom to his
obedience. He confifcates the lands only of
Harold and of his mofi: zealous adherents; ap-
pears to have nothing more at heart, than that the
Englifli and Normans may become one people;
fhews great affability to his new fubjedts, con-
firms the privileges of London, and other cities;
in a word, condudls himfelf not as a conqueror,
but as the nation's rightful fovereign. Thofe be-
ginnings were but fhort lived, and the Engliih
foon found that, in William they had gotten a
mafter and a tyrant. A revolt, whilft abfent in
Normandy, furnifnes him with a pretext for ex-
ercifing his tyrannical difpofition ; the Englifh
are fpoiled of their property, have their privi-
H 4 leges
* This famous battle was fought A. D. 1066.
(120) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
leges taken from them, and are made the flaves
of a defpot. Laws, rigidly fevere, and enforced
with cruelty, charaderife his reign. Britons,
Anglo-Saxons, and Danes are, without diftinc-
tion, reduced to the fame ftate of fervitude;
nor, are the clergy themfelves exempted. The
Saxon laws areabolifhed, and thofe of Norman-
dy fubflituted in their place. All pleadings
were commanded to be in the Norman tongue ;
for William would have no other language
fpoken in England, but that of the conquerors.
Schools were eftablifhed in cities and towns to
infti ud: the youth in it ; that by this means, it
might in time univerfally prevail, and the mo-
ther tongue be lorgotten. His fe verity and ca-
pricious tyranny to theEnglifh nation, made him
hated when alive, and has rendered his memo-
ry odious topofterity. Though William's reign
was often difturbed with the infurredions of his
Englifh and Norman fubjedis, which would not
have happened under a milder government, yet
his happy genius triumphed ; the bad fuccefs
that attended thefe revolts, and the terror of
punifhment, brought them to fubmit to a king,
of whom they were afraid, but could not love.
William, after a reign of twenty one years, died
while befieging Mantz in France, and was
buried at Caen in Normandy. Philip I. jealous
of fo powerful a rival, broke a jefl upon William,
which fo irritated the latter, that he fought his
revenge
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (121)
revenge in the horror?? of v/ar.* Little did he
know that his warlike career was near an end ;
a prefentiment of this would have induced him
to pocket the jefl and flay at home.
The Anglo-Saxons feem to have been direct-
ed by wifdom in the form of their conftitution
and government. The feveral kingdoms of the
Heptarchy were divided into greater and fmal-
ler divifions ; to each of v/hich belonged a court
with proper magiftrates to adminifter juftice.
Alfred the Great divided England into a certain
number of fnires, not exactly the fame as the
prefent divifion of the kingdom. Each (hire
was divided into trithings, thefe into fo many
hundreds ; each hundred into ten fmall diftrids
of ten families each The members of thefe
laft diftricfls were mutually bound for each
other's behaviour. Anyperfon, not a member
of a diftrid:, was confidered as a vagabond, who
was not entitled to protection from the laws of
his country. An inftitution of this kind w^as
admirably contrived for preferving peace and
good order.
There was a diftinclion of ranks among the
Anglo-Saxons. The loweft, and probably the
moil numerous in the ftate, were thofe in the
rank of flaves. Slavery continued in England
as long as the Saxons were heathens, and for
fome
* William was corpulent with a prominent belly; the
monarch of France afl.cd in jell, when his brother the king
of England would lay in.
(122) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
fome time after their converfion to chriftianity.
Next were thofe who, having been once flaves,
had obtained their freedom. The third rank
were thofe originally free, who might follow any
employment mod fuitable to their genius.- —
Next to them were the thanes, or nobles, equal
to German chieftains, and the higheft rank
were the princes of the blood. The fair-fex,
whilft unmarried, had the fame rank with their
parents, and with their hufbands after marriage.
Female flaves, if not made free before marriage,
did not procure their liberty by marrying a free
man.
Each diviflon of the kingdom had courts of
juftice, and the higheft court was called the Wit-
tenagemote, /. e. an affembly of wife men : in
it the king prelided, and it had the power of
making both civil and ecclefiaftical laws.
Queftions relating to peace and war were dif-
cufTed in it, and the important national affairs
finally regulated. The Saxon Wittenagemotc
was in imitation of the German aflemblies, of
which all the warriors and priefts were mem-
bers. The members of the Saxon parliament,
were all proprietors of land; and, after this
country became Chriftian, the higher and low-
er clergy ; all who, by virtue of their office,
and upon account of their knowledge of the
laws, were thought proper perfons to lit in this
alTembly. As the king prefided, fo he propo-
fed
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (123)
fed all queilions, which were to be difcuffed
by the members ; this gave him great power.
After the converiioii of the Saxons, the times
of meeting of the VVittenagemote were Eafter,
Chriflmas, and Whitfuntide. Liberty and fafety
were fecured to the members in going and com-
ing to and from the Wittenagemote. But thefe
laws afforded no fecurity to thieves and robbers ;
a clear evidence, that in thofe rude ages, perfons
of rank were addicled to robbery and thieving.
Though hereditary fuccefuon took place
among the Anglo-Saxons ; yet the next heir to
the crown was fometimes palTed by, to make
way fo'r a more diftant relation of the royal
line, who was judged more capable of reigning.
The Anglo-Saxon kings were not abfolute, the
laws and cuftoms of their country, limited their
power and prerogatives. To adminifter juftice
and command the army in time of war, were the
two chief duties of the regal office : and he who
could not difcharge both thefe, was confidered
by our anceftors as not qualified to reign.
Rude nations have no WTitten laws. Cuftoms
handed down from father to fon, fupply their
place. The nations by whom the Roman em-
pire was difmembered, were governed by cuf-
toms ; and thefe, when they had gained a per-
manent fettlement, were committed to writing,
and new laws enaded. With regard to the
Anglo-Saxon laws, let it fufhce to obferve, that
the
(124) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. II.
the jurifprudence of our anceflors, and of all
other European nations, Mas very imperfed: in
the period we are fpeaking of. Apecuniary coni-
penfation was what they aimed at in all their
penal laws. Hence the different value (et upon
the lives of different men. The fine for klllmg
a freeman was greater than that exadled for the
life of a Have : and fo in proportion to a per-
fon's rank and property. The price of a limb
"Was not the fame in all parts of England. The
value of it in one county might be three pounds,
in another but forty ihillings. Many of the
Anglo-Saxon laws were founded on wrong
principles, and many of their modes of trial to
acquit the innocent and condemn the guilty,
evidently led to a wrong decifion.
Learning flourifhed among the ancient Bri-
tons, owing to their intercourfe with the Ro-
mans. Merlin, of whom many wonderful ftories
are told, was a Briton. Though thefe are not
true, yet they ferve to (liew that he was learned.
Among an ignorant people, a perfon of fuperior
knowledge is thought to poffefs fomething more
than human. The Saxons before, and after
they became Chriftians, fet little value on learn-
ing and fcience ; yet fome learned men appeared
in thofe dark ages. A Columbinus, who by fome
is faid to have been Irifhman, and by others
a Scotchman. Aldhelm was a man of learning,
for the time in which he lived. Having acquir-
ed
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (125)
cd what learned knowledge Britain could af-
ford, he travelled into foreign parts for improve-*
ment. He was the firft Englifhman who wrote
Latin in profe and verfe. His ftyle is elegant,
and his compofitions fhew him to have been
well acquainted with philofophical and religious
fubjedls.
Bede. — Bede was the moft eminent of any in
England in his time. He was born at Were-
mouth, in Northumberland, 672, and educated
in a monaftery in that place. Having a genius
for learning, and the advantage of a good libra-
ry, he made great progrefs. He was ordained
a prieft at the age of thirty ; but never rofe high-
er in the church than a fimple monk. He fpent
his life in the monaitery of Jarrow, near the
mouth of the Tyne. But though his life was
humble and obfcure, his fame fpread through
Europe, and the pope was deiirous to have his
company, and advice in the government of the
church. He left writings behind him, which
ihew him to have been a man of learning and
piety, but credulous ; one who believed the idle
legendary ftories of thofe times.
Alcuin, — Alcuin, an Englifhman, born in the
north of England, and educated at York, was
eminent for his genius and learning. Being
employed in an embafiy from Offa, king of Mer-
cia, to Charlemagne, that emperor contra6led
fuch a liking for him, that he prevailed with
him
fn6) MODERN HISTORY. LtcT. IL
him to fettle at his court, and become his pre-
ceptor. Alcuin did fo, and mflrudled that
emperor in the faiences. He was called, by way
of eminence, the emperor's delight, being always
confulted by him in things relating to religion
and learning. A French writer fays. That- to
Alcuin, France was indebted for all the polite
learning it boafted of, in that and the following
ages. This learned Englifhman, compcfed
many treatifes on various fubjecfls, in an elegant
and pure ftile. He retired from Charlemagne's
court, to his abbey of St. Martin, at Tours,
in Flanders, where he died, in the year 804.
We have already taken notice of Alfred the
Great, as a man of literature, and an encourager
of learned men. He was an univerfal fcholar,
and what is much to his praife, employed his
tafle for knowledge, to promote the happinefs
of his fubjedls. The monafteries were the places
where learning was taught; but he founded
fchools pn a more extenfive plan. Learning
revived under his aufpicious reign. So true it
is, that a prince, animated with a defire to dif-
fufe knowledge and happinefs among his fub-
jedls, can produce an alteration for the better in
the fpirit of a nation.
Arts, — The arts are fo conducive to the eafc
and convenience of life, that without a know--
ledge of them, the bounties of nature would be
of little fervice to man. The progrefs of the
arts
Lect. 11. MODERN HISTORY. ( r 27)
arts is flow among an uncivilized people. —
Ignorant of, and without tafte for, the real
enjoyments of life, they make no efforts to
become maflers of thofe arts which conduce to
convenience and elegance. Agreeably to this
obfervation, the arts v/ere but in their infancy
among the Anglo-Saxons. They had fome know-
ledge of agriculture; but their method of culti-
vating their lands, was fuch as nature dictated.
Gardening and architecture made but little pro-
grefs. The art of making glafs was introduced
into England in the feventh century ; but con-
tinued for a long time in an imperfedl ftate.
Though our anceftors were not proficients in
any of the arts, they were not wholly ignorant
of them. They knew how to work in lead,
gold, filver, and jewels. The art of dying fcar-
let, was difcovered in this ifland about the be-
ginning of the eleventh century ; and they could
drefs fkins without taking of the hair or wool.
They excelled even then in making of woollen
cloth ; but lilks were not yet manufactured in
England. The art of war was agreeable to the
methods of attack and defence in thofe days, but
probably not reduced to a fcience, as it is in our
times. Poetry and painting, filler arts, the
gift of nature, though iijiproved by education,
were cultivated anciently in Britain. The
Saxons were well fkilled in the art of painting
©n glafs, fome monuments of which remain.
The
(12 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
The famous St. Dunftan, was efteemed an ex-
cellent painter by his contemporaries, and em-
ployed his pencil in religious fubjeds.
All nations, even in their rudeft ftate, have
difcovered a flrong propeniity to fublime ftrains
of poetry. Of all the arts, poetry was the moll:
admired and cultivated by the inhabitants of
this ifland, hence the beautiful relics of an-
cient fong. In thofe rude times, every great
man had his bard, who drew up the annals of
his family in verfe, and fung them that they
might be the more eafily imprefTed on the me-
mory of thofe, who Ihould be acquainted with
them, and be more eafily handed down to pof-
terity. In the period under review, poetry
and poets were admired^ honoured, and nobly
rev/arded. Alfred, who was himfelf a poet, and
made verfes on purpofe to civilize his fubjecls,
encouraged and rewarded men of poetical genius.
Princes in that age were delighted to hear the
verfes of their bards, to read their works, and
commit them to memory. The poems of the
northern bards produced the moil furpriling
efFeds on thofe that heard them. The turbu-
lent paiTions were roufed or foothed, according
to the nature of their drains. The power of
muiic a(fl:ing upon thf palTions, is better felt
than defcribed.
The ancient Britons, Anglo-Saxons, Scots,
Iri{h> and other northern nations, were fond of,
and
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (129)
and cultivated the mufical art. In thofe daySj»
every one who courted efleem, was at pains
to be acquainted with vocal and inflrumencal
mufic. To be ignorant of this art, was held
difgraceful. The favourite mufical inftrument
of our ancedors, and of all the nations of£uropc,
was the harp. By the laws of Wales, the harp
was one of three things necelTary to conflitute
a gentleman ; and none but gentlemen w^re al-
lowed to play on it. The king had his harper.
They had other mufic al inftruments, particu-
larly the fmall pipe and bagpipe, the flute and
tabor. The power of mufic is amazingly great.
A king of Norway and his courtiers, were, by
the martial drains of a harper, roufed into fuch
frantic rage, that, had they not been prevented,
tl;iey would have fallen by mutual wounds.*
The Anglo-Saxons are defcribed as remark-
ably handfom,c, tall, and robufl. From the
figure of their bodies, and their manner of liv-
ing, we may fuppofe they enjoyed good health,
and that many of them attained to a good old age.
It is not fo eafv to form an eflimate of the en-
dowments of their minds : their religion after
h ey became Chriflians, was tinged with fuper-
dition : they were dupes to the errors of the
times. The martial fpirit, which the Saxons,
who firft fettled in England, f)ofreired, degene^
rated in their poftenty. The Danes were -xllb
X I renowned
* See Heniy's Hift. Eng. V0I. i.
(ijo) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
renowned for valour in war. The Saxons were
of a focial difpofition ; this is frill inherent in
their pofterity* They were credulous and full
of curiofity; two weaknefles the Englifh are not
yet divefted of. They were hofpitable; and
who has not heard of Englifh hofpitality ;
though fome complain that it is gone into dif-
ufe. They had many vices ; but over thefe I
would throw a veil. They were blunt in their
addrefs ; but very refpecflful to the fair fex.
A few obfervations from an ijigenious writer,
fhall conclude this lecture. " The Anglo-Saxon
matrons would rather have their virtues extolled,
than their beauties admired. In vindicatioh of
their fex*s honour, fhe, convicted of adultery,
had her hair cut off, and then fhe was turned
forth (with her clothes cut off to her girdle)
from her hufband's houfe, in pre fence of her
kindred, and was whipped from town to town,
till fhe died ; no regard being paid to her fex,
wealth, or beauty. Ker feducer was generally
hanged on a tree. Thofe who were unnatural-
ly lewd, were ftifled in mud, or covered with
hurdles.
The amufements of the Anglo-Saxon wornen,
were fimple and heroic. They gave an ardour
to the one fex, and were honourable to the other.
Inftead of tambouring waiflcoats, they embroi-
dered f^andards for their heroes. The fpinning
wheel was preferred to the pillow and bobbins,
and
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (131)
and the culinary duties of the houfe, were
thought more honourable, than to be fhut up in
their chamber, manufacturing knotted fringe,
and fprigged aprons. Four daughters of king
Eduard the elder, were highly difunguiflied
and praifed, for their afliduityand Ikill in fpin-
ning, weaving, and needle work.
It refleclis fliame on our boafted modern civi-
lity, V. hen v.e read that the ancients were parti-
cularly attentive to preferve the chaftity of
young maidens. No illiberal jefts were fuffered
to give a fhock to the grace of m.odefty. The
nuptial benediction was received by the bride
under a veil, to conceal her virgin blufhies : but
the ceremony of the veil was difpenfed with,
with refpect to a v. idow.
Mothers yielded to the tender inflructions of
nature in the nutrition of their children. The
Saxon matron, a llranger to the falfe delicacy of
latter times, nurfed v.nd fuckled her own young,
if ihe was able to do it. They held it as a general
lule, that a child, by fucking a ilrange nurfe,
v/ould rather incline unto the nature of her, than
unto the nature of its own father or miother.
The origin of drinking healths, is placed in
the time of the Anglo-Saxons. The old health,
by hiitorians reported to have been drank by
Rowcna, daughter or niece of Kengifb, to Voite-
gern, king of the Britons, was after this faihion ;
ihe came into the room where the king and the
I 2 guefls
(132) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IL
guefts were fitfing, and making a low obedience
to him, Ihe faid, " Be of good health, lord king,"
then having drank, fhe prefented it on her knees
to the king, who, being told the meaning of
%vhat file faid, and the cuftom, took the cup>
faying, *< I drink your health,''' and drank alfo.
Drunkennefs was brought into Britain by the
Danes, who were fuch immoderate topers in
the reign of Edgar, and fo much did their bad
example prevail with the Englifh, that he, by
the advice of Dunflah, archbift:iop of Canter-
bury, put down many ale-houfes, fuffering only
one to be in a village, or fmall town. And, he
alfo farther ordained, that pins or nails fliould
be faftened in drinking cups or horns, at ftated
diftances, and whofoever fhould drink beyond
thefe marks at one draught, fhould be obnox-
ious to fevere punifhment.
The Danes, we are told, entertained the moft
barbarous idea of their god ; to him they offer-
ed human facrifices. And though the inftitu-
tion of juries is generally afcribed to Alfred the
Great ; yet fome fay, that trial by jury, took its
rife from their religious notions.
The Danes were voluptuous and effeminate.
Their beds were conftrudlcd for indulgence, and
their beautiful locks that were twilled round the
hearts of the Britifh females, feemed to be their
peculiar care. A young warrior going to be
beheaded, begged of his executioner that his
hair
Lect. II. MODERN HISTORY. (133)
hair might not be touched by a flave, or
flained with his blood. And Harald Harfra-
gre, /. e. fairlocks, made a vow to his miftrcfs
to negledl his fine hair, till he had completed
the conqueft of Norway, to gain her love.
Their heroifm was fullied with vanity, and
their diflipations were inadlive. The Danifli
kings and heroes always carried a poet with
them to battle, to immortalize their prowefs ;
and they filled up their leifure hours with chefs,
dice, and backgammon. The lafl game was
invented about this period in Wales, and de-
rives its name from back, little, and cammon,
battle.
As the Englifh are compounded of different
nations, fo manly fortitude and valour are truly
Britifh ; the Saxons budded upon the original
flock, the gentler virtues; and the Danes in-
grafted cruelty, intemperance and all the boi-
flerous pafTions which agitate the moft violent
tempers ; fo that the natives of this country
derive intrepidity from the Britons, politenefs
from the Saxons, and barbarity from the
Danes.'* *
1 3 LECTURE
* See Strutt on the manners and cufloms of the ancient Englifh.
(134) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III.
LECTURE III.
Charlemagne y Re volutions^ Governments^
Manners y — Religions y — CuJlomSy Sciences y —
the Normans.
' I ^HERE is nothing flable on this globe;
^ change fucceeds change ; one revolution
gives place to another. We may fay, there is
a conftant ftruggle between the power which
creates, and that which deftroys. The palllons
of men have produced that variety of fcenes
which we behold delineated in the writings of
the liiftorian. Thefe, under whatever form
they appear, wx mult carefully obferve, would
we unfold the caufes of thofe events prefented
to us in the annals of nations.
At the commencement of the period wc
would make the fubjedl of this leclure, we are
prefented with three empires. That of the weft
renewed under Charlemagne, who, poffefied of
a vaft extent of country, exercifed all the autho-
rity of the ancient emperors. -I he Greek
empire, which, though weakened by revolts,
and ihe fury of religious fanaticifm, dill fup-
portea ir.'elf againlt the Bulgarians on the north,
and the Saracens on the foath. Irene, a wo-
man
Lect. III. MODERN HISTOx^Y. (135J
man famous for her talents and crimes, afcends
the tottering throne of Conftantinoplc, and
makes the nations from the Adriatic to the Bof-
phorus yield her obedience. Haroun-al-Raf-
chid, was emperor of the Saracens ; a man, who
gave a luflre to the empire over which he preii-
ded, it never had before. Bagdad his capital
became the centre of learning, and the fine
arts ; and the people of Aiia and Africa, hap-
py under his government, called him the jufi\
the moft glorious title a king can have. The
other ftates of Europe were yet in Embryo, re-
fembling fpots on the body of the fan.
The long and glorious reign of Charlemagne,
at a time when barbarity prevailed in Europe,
prefents us with a fight worthy of a more en-
lightened age than that in which he lived. —
His ambition and abilities enabled him to per-
form adlions which have immortalized his name.
Being, by the death of his brother Carloman,
become mafter of a powerful kingdom, he, at
the inftigation of the pope, puts an end to the
kingdom of the Lombards; obliges feveral
Italian princes to do him homage ; protects the
fee of Rome, and carries his arms into Germany
againft the Saxons. That war lailed thirty
years. We admire the furprifing efforts of a
brave and independent people to preferve their
liberties. When we fee Charlemagne ordering
4500 Saxons to be ilain in his prefence, becaufe
1 4 they
(136) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IIL
they would nor deliver up Witikind, their lead-
er and defender; when we fee him, from a mif-
taken zeal, forcing them to become Chriflians,
find fubjedling them to cruel laws, humanity,
revolts, and feized with horror, we forget his
more amiable qualities, and abhor his memory,
Witikind having received baptifm, continued
faithful to Charlemagne ; but his countrymen,
hot following his example, revolted from time
to time. Many of the Saxons left their native
country to feek refuge in more hofpitablc
climes ; and carried with them a diflike to the
Chriftian religion, and a hatred of their cruel
conqueror. Some hiftorians blame the obfli-
nacy of thofe barbarians, not confidering that,
it is natural for man to flee from flavery, and
the fury of intolerance. Let us call things by
their right names. Hillory is an upright tri-
bunal, before which, flattery is fllent, and the
voire of truth alone is heard. Had the fame
of Charlemagne arifen from no other caufe, than
his vidorics over the Lombards, Saracens, and
Saxons, he would have deferved to be ranked only
among the defl:royers of the human race ; but
he pofieflcd other qualities, which procured him
the love of his fubjeds, and are worthy the ad-
miration of pofl:erity.
It is not in the midft of conquefl", that Char-
lemagne appears a great man ; it is when we
fee him employed in procuring happinefs to
his
Lect, IIL modern history. (137)
his fubjeds ; extending his views to govern-
ment, manners, religion, learning, and the arts.
He appears the father of his people in thofe
national alTemblies, which often met by his or-
ders ; in which he propofed laws for' the public
good, and allowed others the fame liberty. He
was equally attentive to the welfare of every part
of his vaft dominions, and of all ranks of men..
He endeavoured, as much as he could, to relieve
and comfort the common people, who then
groaned under an almoft univerfal opprefllon.
With this view he repairs the highways, makes
new ones, where there were none before, builds
bridges, renders rivers navigable for the exten-
fion of commerce, and meditates the noble de-
iign of a communication between the ocean and
> the Black Sea, by cutting a canal from the
Rhine to the Danube. - The defign failed, be-
caufe the art of cutting canals was then in its
infancy ; but to conceive a deiign is fometimes
as glorious as to carry it into execution.
Charlemagne, unlike thofe conquerors, who
only defolate the earth, wiflied to repair the dif-
orders of war, of barbarity, and ignorance.
Charlemiagne was no lefs amiable in private
life. An affedionate hufband, a tender father, a
fincere and generous friend. Hehimfelf fuper-
in tended the education of his children, and took
care that oeconomy and order fhould prevail in
his houfe, as in the feveral departments of the
ftate.
(I3S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III.
ftate. His drefs was a model of fimplicity and
real grandeur. " What fliame," faid he to
feme of his nobility, whofe drefs he tho-jght
more elegant than the occalion required, " learn
to drefs as men ; be diftinguiilied for your merit,
and not for your clothes ; leave to women the
care of drefs, or referve your fine clothes for
days of pomp and ceremony, lince they are only
for fliow, and not for ufe." Upon fuch occa-
iions, he appeared in all the pomp of real mag-
nificence ; but in general his drefs was plain
and modefl, and his table frugal. One excefs,
for which he is blamed, was a too great defire
of unlawful pleafure with women ; " An excefs
. (fays an hiilorian) we are tempted to excufe in
a prince, (though it is certainly inexcufable in
any man) who governed by himfelf, and who
fpent his life in the fatigues of war, and the cares
cf government." " I fnall add only one word,
* (fays the ingenious Montefquieu) but this one
^vord flievvs the great man. — He ordered the
tggs in his poultry yard, and the ufelefs herbs
in his gardens, to be fold ; and he divided
among his fubjeds the wealth of the Lombards,
and the immenfe treafures of the Huns, who
liad plundered the world.**
Charlemagne's efforts to banifli ignorance,
and introduce knov» ledge, form a very brilliant
part of his reign. Study (not for amufement but
inllru'ftion) was his daily occupation. In the
camp^,
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (139 J
camp, as in the court, he had Hated hours for
the cultivation of his mind ; and, by an ac-
quaintance with letters, eafed himfelf of the
fatigues of war, and the cares of government.
He was fond of the company and converfation
of learned men, invited them from all parts of
Europe, and had an academy in his palace, of
which he was a member. He eltablifhed fchools
in cathedrals and abbeys, in which fcholars were
intruded in the knowledge of the fcriptures,
in arithmetic, grammar, and church mulic.
This was doing a great deal, at a time when
even the dignified clergy could not fubfcribe
their own name; and when the qualifications
of a priefl: were to be able to read the gojpel and
the Lord's prayer.
Alcuin (who has been already mentioned)
w^as the companion and favourite of Charle-
magne. This learned Engliihman became his
preceptor, and was enriched by him with many
favours. Indeed, the emperor's generofity to
men of letters knew no bounds. Perfuaded
that genius thrives beft when encouraged, he
did all he could to cherifh it. As ignorance
every where prevailed, fo this great man faw
the neceffity of protecting and encouraging a
clafs of men, who could employ their talents
for the public good. He knew that it is eafier
to govern the enlightened, than the ignorant;
that
(140) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III.
that times of ignorance are times of barbarity;
and that from this caufe, the world in general
becomes as dangerous to live in as in the wilds
of Africa. His ardent love of learning, and his
generous efforts to diifufe and increafe it, de-
ferve our hearty acknowledgements. But our
humanity condemns his blind zeal, which, by
blunting his natural feelings, prompted him to
deftroy thoufands of Saxons, for no other crime,
but becaufe they wifhed to be free. The
philofopher and Chriftian reproach him juftly
for his fuperftitious attachment to the fee of
Rome, and the clergy ; an attachment which
became fatal to his fucceflbrs, and, perhaps,
gave birth to that fpiritual tyranny, under
which Europe has fo long groaned ; an attach-
ment vv^hich engaged him in theological dif-
putes, unworthy of his charadler. Charles ap-
pears great in the national aifemblies of his do-
minions, and in inquiring out the means to make
his people happy ; but we are difgufted to fee
him in the council of Frankfort, in the midft
of three hundred bifhops, and two of the pope's
legates, arguing with them, and determining
matters of fairh. The difpute about image
w^orfnip, and the carolin books written by him
on that cccaficn, {hew him to have been guilty
of meanhefles, and influenced by the prejudices
of the times: F^gotijm never was, nor will be,
the charader of real greatnefs.
While
Lect. hi, modern history. (141)
While Charlemagne employed himfelf in in-
ferior objedls, he did not negled: what might
contribute to his glory. Abfolute mafier of
a very large extent of country, he wiihed for
a title fupericr to that of king, or patrician,
which indicated a kind of dependence on the
emperors of Conftantinople. An opportunity
offered to gratify his ambition. The pope re-
quefts his afuftance againfc the Lombards —
Charles grants his requeft, delivers him from
his enemies, and Leo IIL to reward this, pro-
claims him emperor and Auguftus. The pope
had no right to make an emperor ; but Charles,
the founder of the new weifern empire, deferved
the title, which was univerfally acknowledged.
The emprefs Irene fent immediately ambafTa-
dors to him with propofals of marriage ; but a
revolution, which happened foon after at Con-
fVantinople, prevented the match from taking
place. Yet Nicephorus, who dethroned Irene,
made a treaty with Charles, and gave him the
title of Auguftus.
The fame of Charlemagne reached Afia. —
The famous Haroun-al-Raichid, the enlighten-
ed caliph of the Saracens, courts his friendfhip,
and compliments him with valuable prefents,
by the hands of his ambaifadors. — Flattered
with the refpedl of foreign monarchs, admired
by Grangers, delivered from the Normans, ^be,-
loved by his fubjcds, and feared by his enemies,
Charles
(142) MODERN HISTORY. Lsct. III.
Charles had attained to the fummit of human
greatnefs, and, in the opinion of fome, to the
grcateft pofTible happincfs ; but peifecl happi-
nefs cannot be enjoyed on earth. The lofs of
Rotrude, the daughter of his afFedlion, and the
death of his two fons, Pepin and Charles, im-
bittered the laft days of his life. He aflbciated
his fon Louis with him in the empire, one year
before his death. The ceremony was magnifi-
cent ; and Charles forfeeing, by a kind of pro-
phetic fpirit, the ufurpations of the church, laid
the imperial crown upon the altar, and ordered
the prince his fon to take it from thence, and
place it upon his head, to remind him he held
it of GOD. An important lelTon, but foon
forgotten. — " Love your people as your chil-
dren, (faid he to the prince;) chufe governors
and judges, who, having the fear,of God in their
hearts, will abhor corruption; and be ycu your-
felfirreproveable before men." -
Charles died at Aix-Ia-Chapelle, and the glory
of the weftern empire may be faid to have died
"with him. The fuperior genius of Charlemagne
gave animation to that vaft body, and harmony
and order prevailed through the whole. Under
Louis the Meek, this harmony decreafcd, the
empire received fevere (hocks, it tottered, and
fell to pieces under his fucceflbrs. If the reader
wifhes to know what Vv^cre the caufes of this re-
volution
Lect. in. MODERN HISTORY. (143)
volution, the hifcory of Charles' poilerity will
inform him.
Louis inherited the power, but not the abili-
ties, of his father. He was a weak and fcrupu-
lous prince, who neglected the duties of a
throne for the devotion of a cloifter. His reign,
from beginning to end, was a tilTue of faults and
mifcondud:. He difgraced his father's minif-
ters, treated his fillers with cruelty^ and dif-
membered the empire. The confequence of
which was, the pope increafed his power, the
clergy afpired to an exemption from civil autho-
rity, and they would have a ihare of the govern-
ment. His fons rebelled againd him, and, being
favoured by pope Gregory IV. were fuccefsful.
The unhappy father, betrayed by his troops,
w^as obliged to furrender himfelf to his children.
Nay, this was not all ; he was obliged, after
hearing a lift of his crimes read, to fubmit to be
clothed in a penitential drefs, and then fhut
up in a cell, without one domeftic to attend
him. Fiis three fons quarreled, and their dif-
fenfions foon reftorcd him to his throne. —
Louis, weak and fuperftitious, w^ould not re-
fume the reins of government, till he received
abfoiution from the hands of the biftiops. He
received it, and their crime remained unpunifh-
cd. The fatigue to which he was expofed in
quelling a civil war, with feme other caufes,
brought on a languilhing diftcmper, of which
he
(144) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
he died; The weak abilities and indifcrcet
devotion of this prince, were the caufe of many-
troubles to his family, and of revolts in his
kingdom. The Normans, Saracens, and Bri-
tons braved his authority. He was the fport of
the clergy, of the pope, of his wife, and the
vidim of his children. The reign of a pufilla-
nimous prince is the caufe of many evils to his
fubjedls; the reign of a tyrant is, perhaps,
better; at leaft, the evils of his government arc
not of fo long continuance.
The other fuccelTors of Charlemagne were
equally weak princes, as 'deftitute of good
condud: as Louis had been, and therefore equal-
ly unfortunate. Charles the Simple, the laft
of the race of Charles the Great that reigned in
France, by difmembering his kingdom in fa-
vour of Rollo, the Norman, greatly irritated
his fubjedts. — Charles* inability to govern, was
every day more evident, and made him ftill
more contemptible, From contempt, the
French proceeded to revolt, w hich ended at laft
to the difadvantage of Charles, and paved the
v/ay for Hugh Capet to the throne.
After the death of Louis, the German em-
pire left the houfe of Charlemagne, and became
elevflive. The German lords alTembled at
Worms, eledted Conrad, Duke of Franc onia, to
the imperial crown. His reign was unfortu-
nate, rather owing to the nature of the feudal
fyflem.
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (145)
fyftem, than to the inability of Conrad for go-
vernment. After his death, the principal nobi*
lity, clergy, and deputies of the cities, eleded
Henry the Fowler. The empire was afflided
with many evils; and Henry, like a wife prince,
wiflied to remedy them by good laws. Troops
of adventurers unemployed, traverfed Europe,
and committed depredations wherever they
came : with them Germany was much infefted.
Henry, to make thofe bold adventurers good
ibldiers, publilhed a general pardon ro all that
would enter into his fervice. They crowded
to his ilandard, and Henry formed them, by
difcipline, into excellent troops. He tried
next to put an end to feudal anarchy, by obliging
the inferior valTals to furnifh troops, and pro-
vifion for their fubfiftence. He built cities,
rc-eftablifhed thofe which were gone to decay ;
and, after the example of Charlemagne, created
marquifes to defend the frontiers from the in-
curfions of the barbarians. This wife and pru-
dent prince did all he could to annihilate confu-
lion, and to introduce order and happinefs. He
died in Thuringia, whilfl: on his march to Italy
with an army, to quell the civil wars, which
prevailed in that country, and to receive the
imperial crown from the hands of the pope. —
Before his death, he afiembled the German
princes, who elected his fon Otho, furnamcd
the Great.
K When
(146) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
When the family of Charlemagne loft its
, power, the fertile country of Italy became the
prey of petty tyrants. Lombardy, and fomc
other provinces, felt the horrors of civil war ;
the reft were defolated by the Huns and Sara-
cens. The German princes often attempted to
poftefs themfelves of the crown of Italy, but
were difappointed. They could neither reftore
order, nor defend the crown they had feized.
The popes of thofe days were a fcandal, not
only to the chriftian religion, but to human
nature. They got into the papal chair by un-
fair means, and when in it, governed defpo-
tically by their miftrefles. Churches were
pillaged and deftroyed; letters gave place to
ignorance, and fociety degenerated into its for-
mer favage ftate. — The hiftory of Italy in the
tenth century prefents this difagreeable pidture;
a picture that may pleafe the unfeeling heart,
but from which the feniible and humane, turn
away with difguft.
Venice, — To contemplate the peaceful pro-
grefs of the republic of Venice, amidft" thofc
convulfions which fliook Europe, muft give
pleafure to every feniible mind. Thefe happy
Iflanders emerged from obfcurity, and formed
a regular and well conftrudled government, not
at once, by violent agitations, and convulfive
motions ; but bV an uniform police, and an inde-
fatigable induftry. While they feared the houfc
of
Lect. in. MODERN HISTORY. (147)
of Pepin, they aifedled to depend upon Con«
flantinople; but when that family was no longer
formidable, they threw off their dependerice,
and erafcd the names of the eaftern emperors
from their decrees. Every veftige of fubjec-
tion to a foreign power being removed, they
gave more flrength and confiftency to their
government. They were fenlible of the difad-
vantages of a democracy; that it verges to
violence and anarchy ; that in its moil: perfect
flate, public deliberations are flow, and defti-
tute of that quicknefs of difpatch, which is
fometimes the falvation of a flate ; that the fe-
crets of government are not properly kept ; that
deferving men are expofed to bafe ingratitude
and envy ; and that the human pafllons, even the
bad ones, are more predominant under a demo-
cratical, than under an abfolute governments
Convinced of thefe truths, the Venetians at firft
conftrudted their government partly demo-
cratical, and partly an ariflocracy. By this
mixture, the nobles became connedied with one
another, and the lower orders in the flate were
preferved from being hurt by the higher : being
confidcred as belonging to the republic, and not
to the nobles, the common people were treated
as freemen, not as (laves. Having fettled the
internal government of the fbate, from whence
the glory and happinefs of a nation do fpring;
having cftablillied rules of police and good or-
K ^ ' der^
(I4S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
der, which are ftill the admiration of politicians;
thefe wife republicans redoubled their induftry^
increafed their marine, and extended their com-
merce. They became the carriers of Europe^
exported in their veflels European commodities
into the eafl, and brought back into Italy_, the
producftions of Alia. A government fo wife, and
a commerce fo extenfive, procured them the
refpecfh of their neighbours, gave new vigour to
the Hate, and increafed their opulence.
Spain, during this period, was only a theatre
of bloody wars, between the Chriftians and
Moors ; the former of whom, by the valour of
their kings, gained upon the latter, grew in
Hrength, and w ent on re-conquering what they
had lofl. — The famenefs of the hiftory of Spain>
during thefe conflidls, tires the reader. Battles
fought, cities befiegedand taken, human blood
fpilt, afford no pleafing entertainment. A ray
of virtue, like a gleam of funfhine in a dark and
gloomy day, fometimes breaks out amidfl thefe
horrors, and chears the mind. An intrepidity
fuperior to perils and dangers, a conllancy
which furmounts the greateft obflacles, were
the qualities common to the Moors and Chrif-
tians. The fpirit of chivalry which reigned
paramount in Spain, performed the mod fur-
prifing feats of arms. The Chriflians felt an
'invincible deteftation for the yoke of Mahomet;
this added energy to their courage, enabled them
to
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. ( 149)
to perform prodigies of valour, and to extend,
the boundaries of their poflefiions.
The Normans, — The Normans came from
Scandinavia, and increafed the calamities v/ith
which Europe was afflided during this period.
Their religion, the worft kind of heathcnifm,
made them barbarous and fanguinary. Odin,
or Wodin, the fupremeobjed of their worfhip,
was according to them, the God of terror, the
author of devaftation, the father of flaughter;
and they rendered him a worfliip conformable
to thefe terrible attributes. To him they facrifi-
>ced human vidlims, and thought that the effu-
fion of the warrior*s blood, was what pleafed
him beft. The reward thby expeded to enjoy
after death, was to be admitted into his palace,
and there for ever to quaff liquor out of the
ikulls of their enemies. This belief animated
them with a frantic enthufiafm., which braved
fatigue, dangers, and death. ** Our warriors,
defirous of death, (fays one of their poets) go
in queft of it, and meet it with joy. When
mortally wounded in battle, they fall, laugh, and
die.*' To ftem the torrent of thofe barbarians,
courage, difcipline, union, and virtue were
neceflary ; but diforder, difcord, and vice pre-
vailed in chriftian Europe.
The Normans made voyages every where in
queft of plunder, and continued their piratical
devaftations for a long time. The general con-
K 3 fufion
(I50) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. HI.
fufion which prevailed in Europe was favour-
able to them, and afforded them an opportunity
of making a fettlement in France. Rollo, one
of their chieftains, a prince vrorthy to be the
founder of a Hate, after having annoyed the
maritime provinces of Europe, landed in France,
took Rouen, fortified himfelf there, extended
his conquefts, and became fo formidable, that
Charles the Simple offered him his daughter in
marriage, with Neuffria, which, from that timiC,
was called Normandy, after the name of its
new inhabitants. Rollo alfo obtained Bretagne,
did homage to Charles the Simple, for thefc
two provinces, embraced the chriftian religion,
became the legiflator and civilizer of his fub-
jeds, and fliewed himfelf worthy to fill a throne.
ne caujes of revolutions — The empire of Char-
lemagne fell, and by its fall changed the face of
Europe. Two powerful kingdoms, and many
independent ftates arofe out of its ruins. What
were the caufes of this revolution? The very
great extent of Charlemagne's empire contribu-
ted to its fall. A machine compofed of many
pieces, cannot long fubfift, unlefs a perfon who is
perfectly well acquainted with all its parts, their
life and proper place, direds its motion. In un-
skilful hands, this complicated machine moves
wrong, falls afunder, and lofes its effed. Juft
fo the government of a wide extended empire.
While the empire of Charlemagne was animated
by
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (151}
by the a(R:ivity, prudence and ikill of that
great man, all went right ; but in the hands of!
his unfkilful and weak fuccelTors^all went wrono-.
The governors of diilant provinces eafily forget
that they enjoy a delegated authority. It is not
difficult to attach to their interefl the troops
under their command, and to fecure the affec-
tion of thofe they govern by indulgence and
affability. With fuch incitements to fhake off
the yoke, they conceive the delign. The voice
of duty is not heard amidft the tumult of ambi-
tion, and the powerful attradion of command-
ing others. If, yielding to this attraction, one
rebels, many foon imitate his example. The
machine, difcompofed by thefe violent concuf-
fions, totters and falls in peices, and every one
is eager to feize a part of the wreck. Thus,
when a fiate has arrived at a certain pitch of
greatnefs, every fl:ep taken to increafe it^ is a
ftep towards its ruin.
The inability of Charlemagne's fucceffors for
government, may be affigned as the fecond
caufe. The more extenfive a ffate is, the more
does the government of that ftate verge towards
defpotifm. An authority abfolute and indepen-
dent of law, often degenerates into tyranny:
hence thofe acts of injuftice committed by the
fovereign, which offend the fubjeds ; hence their
dcteftation of, and their attempts to free them-
felves from a fevere yoke. The exceflive power
K 4 o£
(152) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. III.
of defpotifm perfuades the fovereign to under-
take enterprifes which create general difcontent,
and bring difgrace upon himfelf. An abfolutc
power renders him effeminate and inactive ; ef-
feminacy and inaction expofe him to the con-
tempt of his fubjedls, to revolts and feditions.
Charlemagne's defcendants were all weak prin-
ces, confequently, a revolution could not but
happen. Again,
The Normans gave a fatal blow to the empire
of Charlemagne. That great man knew how to
check their ravages ; but under Louis the Meek^
they plundered wherever they came, and carri-
ed away an immenfe booty. Under Charles
the Bald, their audacity increafed, they pillaged
and burnt every part of the empire, nor were
proper means ufed to punifh thofe daring in-
vaders. Inllead of expelling them by force of
arms, tneir departure was bought with money;
they went away only for a nioment ; this dan-
gerous means invited them to return in greater
numbers, and with an increafed thirft for plun-
der. Thefe continued calamities begot in the
minds of men a hatred of government, and a
contempt of thofe who governed : and the peo-
ple made hafte to fnatch the fceptre from the
hands of m.afters who could not defend them.
Governments, — Government felt great changes
in the empire of Chailemagne. During the
reign of thai great man, an almoft 2:)erfe(fl mo-
narch ial
Lect. IIL modern history. (153)
narchial government exifted. National affairs
were regulated in affemblies, of which he was
preiident. Inveited with abfolute power, his
edicts did not acquire the force of laws, but by
the approbation of the majority. The legifla-
tive power was lodged v/ith the people, united
to a chief. But thefe alTemblies being laid alide,
and the prince invefled with the whole executive
power, the authority became one, and the fo-
vereign was the fountain from whence all infe-
rior powers ilTued. The government changed
under Louis the Meek, and an oligarchy, (or a
government where a few bear rule according to
their paiTions or interefts) was introduced. Un-
der Charlemagne's fucceffors, the royal autho-
rity was deflroyed, and the rights of the people
not known. Then the feudal fyftem, an unna-
tural form of government, made its appearance,
and introduced anarchy into the kingdoms of
Europe. Anarchy produced violence, private
wars became frequent, the feudal barons, each
attended with their valfals, decided their dif-
putes in the field, fingle combat was allowed,
and put under certain regulations. In this ab-
furd fyftem of government, the fupreme autho-
rity was in the hands of a few ufurpers, who had
fubaltern ufurpers under them ; flavery became
general, and every patriotic and virtuous prin-
ciple was loft in the wild uproar. Europe ex-
hibited a theatre of bloody wars ; men knew
nothing
(154) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
nothing but the fcience of attack and defence ;
the adminiflrationof juilice was neglecfhed, and
crimes remained unpunifhed. Government, in
the empire of Conflantinople, was equally weak,
unflablc, and tyrannical. The right of beftow-
ing the crown was ufurped in turn, by the foU
diers, by the people, and by the fenate ; and
crimes of the deepeft dye were the moft com-
mon titles of fucceflion* Were we to contraft
the government under w^hich wc live, with that
of the feudal fyilem, v/hil(l in its vigour in
Europe, we would feel our happinefs. In that
iron age, a chief, under the title of emperor,
king, duke, was the fuperior of many fubaltern
fovereigns, called his vaflals; and dukes, counts,
barons, paid him a mock homage. They, ab-
folute in their own domains, exercifed an arbi-
trary power over thofe, who immediately de-
pended on them. Every lord was fovereign in
his own fief; the people were flaves. Thefc
petty tyrants, living in fortified caflles, made
Continual war upon one another. The land
was laid wafte, flaves and cattle were carried
off; all was plunder that came in their way.
Thcfe feudal lords claimed, as one of their
rights, the liberty of robbing on the highway in
their own territories, and that they were entitled
to a ranfom from all travellers. They eftab-,
lifhcd the molt ridiculous, barbarous, and in-
tiecent cufboms.
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (155)
Legijlation. — Charlemagne and Alfred ufed
great exertions to revive a fpirit of legiflation,
but they fucceeded only in part. Ignorance
and barbarity were too deeply rooted. What
they did this way, was undone foon after their
death; darknefs again covered the face of
Europe ; and the capitularies of the one, and
the wife regulations of the other, had but a
tranfitory elfecfl. Nothing can be more abfurd
than the legiflation, which reigned in Europe
in the period we are fpeaking of. The clergy-
had arrogated to themfelves the right of trying
all caufes, under a pretext that the civil rights of
men have a connexion with religion. An oath
was ufed in all contrads, and as an oath is an
appeal to God, they pretended that all covenants
and agreements among men were to be judged
of by the clergy. Hence, their deciiion with rc-
fped: to divorce, was fupreme ; and aiTemblies
of bifhops were employed in almoft nothing elfe,
but in feparating hufband and wife, upon the
moft frivolous pretexts. In thofe times marri-
age was a precarious flate, and a wife was in
continual fear of lofiing her huiband. The
clergy, exempted from civil jurifdidion, were
of fcandalous manners ; nay, the hope of impu-
nity, or of a flight punifliment, often tempted
them to commit the moft heinous crimes.
Manners in the lotb and nth centuries. — We
may eafily imagine that the planners of our
* ieudal
(156) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.III.
feudal anceflors werc neither civilized nor pure.
Scandalous vices, plots, and treafons among the
clergy; injullice, ufurpation, tyranny, debauch-
cry, in the nobility ; ferocity and fear, the vices
of a flavifh mind, in the people; fuch were the
manners of Europe. The manners of the Greek
empire were no better, if not worfe ; for, to the
abovementioned vices, the Greeks added all
the horrors of fanaticifm.- Humanity and
juftice feem to have taken up their abode
among the Mahometans in Bagdad, where thefe
virtues continued for a long time. DifTolute
manners v/ere the neceffary confequence of the
feudal government : the warlike fpirit of the
times laid the foundation. The feudal lords,
continually at war with each other, lived only
by plunder and rapine. We fee from hiftory,
that divorces, robberies, rapes, and every kind
pf libertinifm, w^re very common in thofe de-
plorable times ; and it was the prime nobility
and clergy, who afforded an example of thefe
fhocking diforders. A perufal of the acfls of the
councils of that period, lliew the difTolutenefs
of manners, which then prevailed. The men-
tion of fome fadls, the confequence of favagc
manners, is enough to m.ake the blood run
cold. A terrible famine afRided France in
the reign of Robert ; and then, not only were
dead bodies dug out of their graves to fervc
for food, but men hunted men like wild beafts
to
Lect.III. modern history. (157)
to devour them. A butcher of Tournus fold
human flefh. There was found with a vidlualler
near Ma^on, forty-eight human heads, the bodies
of which had been ufed for food.* O horrible 1
in this time of violence and debauchery, a great
fhow of devotion appeared in Europe. The
clergy taught, that crimes were atoned for, not
by repentance and amendment of life, but by
donations to the church ; and that he who gave
moft, was the fmcereft penitent. In confe-
quence of this falfe dodlrine, monafleries were
founded, churches built, pilgrimages under-
taken, relics eagerly fought after, and the very
menace of excommunication was as terrible to
the mod enlightened, as to the moft ignorant.
Religion in the tenth and eleventh centuries, — The
Chriftian religion expelled idolatry by little and
little from every part of Europe; but the divine
dodtrines and pure precepts of revelation, were
foon corrupted by the paflions and prejudices of
men. Very few in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
centuries, deferved the name of Chriftians ; the
generality, though called by this name, were as
abfurd and fuperftitious in their devotion, as
favage and wicked in their lives, as their Hea-
then anceflors. Chriftianity acknowledged two
chiefs ; the patriarch of Contontinople govern-
ed the Chriftians of the eaft, and the pope of
Rome reigned ftill more defpotical ly over thofc
in the weft. The
* Voltaire.
(I5S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
The difpute about images, between thofc
called image-breakers and the monks, filled the
eaflern church with animofities, feditions, and
blood. The two parties, as their power pre-
vailed, excommunicated, imprifoned, baniflied,
and put to death thofe who were of oppofitc
fentiments. A theological war was kindled in
the weft. Gochefcales, a monk, impugned the
dodlrine of predeftination. He was cited to
appear before a council of the clergy ; he came,
and Hincmar, bifhop of Rheims, ordered him
to be cruelly beaten, though he difavowed the
confequences his perfecutors imputed to him.
Another monk, Pafcafius Rathbertus, fpoke of
the real prefence in terms too ftrong. Two
other monks, Rabanus and Ratramnus oppofed
his aflertions. The laft were certainly right;
but the controverfy gave rife to many indecent
^nd frivolous queftions ; and (fuch is the weak-
nefs of the human mind) produced hatred and
perfecution. The reign of ignorance is favour-
able toerror; owing to this caufe, crowds of er*
rors crept into religion, and disfigured its beauty.
Men could neither read nor write. The clergy,
who poireffed the little learning there was,
grafped all, fet themfelves above fecular jurif-
didlion, andedabliflieda jurifprudence defbruc-
tive to civil law. The mofi: fcandalous vices
tarnifhed the See of Rome. Two infamous
proftitutes governed the popes, difpofed of
church
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (159)
church preferments as they plcafed, and by
their extravagance, deftroyed the fand:ity of an
oath, and broke every fecial tie. The popes
and bifliops eftabliilied a fyflem of ecclelialtical
domination j and weak, fuperftitious, and igno-
rant kings, favoured their po\yer, and fubmit-
ted to it.
During this period of intelled:ual darknefs
fome enlightened minds appeared. They were
accufed of herefy, becaufe their better know-
ledge revolted againft the abfurd fuperftitions
of the church of Rome. Their enemies, to
render them odious, gave them the name of
Manichees, imputing to them the moft unna-
tural fentiments and crimes; but their only-
crime feems to have been, an attempt to think
for themfeives, and an oppoiition to what they
conceived to be contrary to the Chriftian reli-
gion. Of thefe, the council of Orleans con-
demned thirteen, and the bifhops ordered them
to be burnt in the prefence of Robert, king of
France, and his wife Conftance.
Berenger, archdeacon of Angers, oppofed the
doftrineof the real prefence of Jefus Chrift in
the holy facrament of the fupper. He reafoned
in this manner; the bread ufed in this facra-
ment, will, if eaten after confecration, in too
large 4 quantity, caufe indigeftion, therefore it
is flill properly bread : the confecrated liquor,
if drank too freely, will occalion intoxication,
therefore
f i6o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
therefore it continues v/ine ftill. Whitenefs
and roundnefs are qualities which cannot exili,
without a fubftance to which they belong; but
thefe qualities belong to bread, not to flefh and
blood ; therefore the bread continues the fame
after confecration. — Thefe reafons are founded
in truth, and by them Berenger brought many
over to his opinion.— rLanfranc, archbiiliop of
Canterbury, attacked him with very pitiful ar-
guments; but he was foon oppofed by more
powerful adverfaries. Summoned before the tri-
bunal of Rome, which made kings tremble, he
was threatened with death, if he did not recant.
Overcome with fear, he abjured his fentiments;
but as ready to confefs as deny, he retradled ten
times, and died in the belief that, tranfubftanti-
ation is an unreafonable and unfcriptural doc-
trine. But Berenger*s opinions did not even
perfuade thofe who believed them to be right,
to feparate from the weftern church.
The ignorance which prevailed in the tenth
and eleventh centuries, ftrengthened popular
fuperflitions. Of this many proofs might be
adduced. An Italian noblemian was put to
death for an attempt to debauch Mary of Arra-
gon, wife of the emperor Otho III. His wi-
dow, we are told, offered to prove his innocence,
which fhe did, by holding in her hands, with-
out being burnt, a red-hot bar of iron, as long
as they pleafed ; and that this being deemed a
fufficient
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (i6i)
firfficient proof, the ernprcfs was burnt alive.-—
This abfurd ftory was believed like gofpel thenj,
and for a long time after. So was alfo that of
Cunegonda, the wife of the emperor Henry, who
is faid to have walked barefooted, over nine
red-hot plough fhears, without receiving the
leafl: damage. The well known ftory of Peter
Aldobrandin, a monk of Pavia, is a ftriking
example of the ignorance and credulity which
then prevailed. The monks of Vailombreufe
accufed their bifhop of many crimes, and to
prove the truth of their accufation, defired to
fubmit to the judgment of God by fire. Their
requeft being granted, Peter Aldobrandin, one
of thofe monks, prefented himfelf in his facer-
dotal veflments with a crucifix in his hand, be-
fore a large pile of wood all on fire. He enter-
ed barefooted, and enveloped in flames, walked
flowly through the fire to the other fide, without
receiving any damage in his perfon or clothes.
Nay, we are told, that this faiamandric Aldo-
brandin afked hov/ long they would chufe he
fhould flay in the fire^ and that he turned back
to take up his cloak. Credat Judeus Appella.
Peter's walking through the fire "was only the
tricks of harlequin, which ferved at once to
Ihew, the impudence of the ador, and the llu-
pidity of the fpec^ators.
The ridiculous cuftoms which prevailed in
the well during this period, defaced all that is
X L venerable
fi62) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Ut
venerable and grand in the Chriftian religion-
It was then that the feaft of fools, and affes, was
celebrated in many churches. On the day of
celebration, a perfon, called bifhop of fools,
drefled in canonicals, was conducted into the
middle of the church, riding upon an afs.
Whether this was to do honour to, or meant in
I'idicule of our Saviour's riding into Jerufalem
upon an afs, is not certain. Thefe extravagant
feafts were accompanied with dancing in the
church, eating and drinking upon the altar, and
adling the mofl obfcene farces. Miraculous
events were very plenty in thofe days. A Ger-
man faint marched before Otho and his army,
when they went to attack the kingdom of
France. Otho, however, notwithftanding the
prcdidlion and alliftance of his faint, was beaten,
and obliged to fiy. It was then that St. Francis
fought for his countrymen, and put their enemies
to flight. Did the Alphonfoes in Spain triumph
over the Moors ? Their prudence and valour
were not the caufe; they conquered, bccaufe
St. James put himfelf at the head of the Chrif-
tian army, and was feen mounted upon a white
horfe. A farther detail of thofe extravagances^
would but fatigue and difguft the reader.
Sciences in the lolb a?id iitb centuries ,-^\gno^
ranee is the enemy of knowledge. While men
have no defire to emancipate themfelves from her
flavery, they defpife and oppofe all that tends to
enlighten
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (163)
enlighten the mind. The celebrated Gerbert
founded a mathematical fchooi at Rheims, iri
which he himfelf taught the elements of that
fcience. He received his knowledge of mathe-
matics from the Arabians in Spain. After his
death, he was treated as a forcerer. He was faid
to have made a compadt with the devil, from
whofe clutches he had much difficulty to extri-
cate himfelf. An accufation of this kind is a
Ilrong proof, how greatly fuperior he was to the
age in which he lived. The exalted ftation of life
to which he arofe, the extent of his knowledge
in aftronomy and mathematics, the inftruments
he invented for improvement in thefe fciences,
were fufficient, in that dark age, to make him
be thought a necromancer. The fcholaflic me-
thod of reafoning, which perplexes and con-
founds divine and human fciences, then took
place. Eloquence was only vain declamation^
made up of cold allegories, dillonant images,
huddled together in the moft diforderly manner.
Archite(5lure, fculpture, and painting were yet
in a rude flate. The Gothic tafle flill prevailed,
and the works of that kind which now remain,
though bold and majeflic, are incorred:, with-
out order and true tadc. The Turkifh fcymi*
tar dellroyed fcience in the eaft. Conftanti-
hople, Spain, and Grand Cairo, were the only
places, where fome veftiges of fcientifical know-
ledge ftill remained ; and Avicenna was the
lo z Arabian
fi64) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, IIL
Arabian of thofe times, mod celebrated for his
learning and ikili in phylic.
Hiftory of nations not yet mentioned. — The hif-
tory of the northern ftates of Europe, prior to
the tenth century, affords little information re-
fpeCling their forms of government and man-
ners. But this we know, that in Ruffia, Den-
mark, Sweden, Poland, Elungary, and Bohemia,
fociety had not made the fame progrefs as in
the more fouthern kingdoms of Europe. The
annals of thofe nations are more certain in the
period above-mentioned. They began then to
acquire a more (table form of government, and
to be connected with the other kingdoms of Eu-
rope. In the eleventh century they emerged a lit-
tle from their former oblcurity. Poland received
the Chrillian religion. Otho the Great erecled
it into a kingdom in favour of Boleflaus I. who^
by a wife condu(ft, increafed the profperity of
his fubjedts, and made them formidable to their
neighbours. He conquered Moravia and Sile-
lia, which were loft by the mifcondu6l of his
fon^ Miciflaus II. After the death of Micifiaus,
the Polanders banilhed his widow, and the
young Calimir I. who, iliaring in his mother's
difgrace, took refuge in the abbey of Clugny,
in France, where he affumed the monkifh ha-
bit. Cafimir was recalled fome years after by
his fubjedts, and fhewed himfelf a no lefs great
king than he had been a virtuous monk.
Boleflaus
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (165)
Boleflaus II. Cafimir*s fon, obliged the Ruflians
to become tributary, recovered Moravia and
Silefia, and generoufly afforded protection to
the king of Bohemia. Then Poland was at its
highefl pitch of national glory. But the luflre
of this kingdom is eclipfed in a moment, and
BoleHaus himfelf experiences a forrowful rcverfe
of fortune. A difference arofe between him
and a biiliop of Cracovia. The bifliop excom-
municates the king ; and Boleflaus, in a rage,
goes to the church, and kills the prelate at the
foot of the altar. The famous Gregory VII.
who made kings and their fubjecls tremble, was
then in the papal chair. The murder of a minifter
of the church kindles his vengeance, and with the
thunder of Rome, he i^rikes both- the-king and
the people. Hildebrand depofcs Boleflaus, and
takes from Poland the title of kingdom. The
unfortunate king, profcribed by his fubjeds, is
obliged to difguife himfelf, and feek his fafety
in flight. The fury of the priefts purfues him
every where, and the duke of Bohemia, whom
he had generoufly aOifted in his misfortunes, re-
fufes to give him any protediion. A fugitive,
wandering from place to place, he is obliged to
fubmit to the meancfl employments, till, at laff,
a band of murderers put an end to his life and
forrows. Poland was made a duchy, loft its
fplendour, and ceafed to make a figure among
the nations of Europe. In thofe days of the
L 3 church's
(i66) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Ill,
churches power, to quarrel with the clergy was
the moft difagreeable bufinefs a crowned head
could be engaged in.
The title of kingdom, which Poland loft, was
given by the emperor to Bohemia. Wratiflaus,
its firft king, fubdued Moravia, Silefia, and a
part of Poland. Hungary emerges from the
darknefs of heathcnifm. Geifa, who embraced
Chriftianity, foftcns the favage manners of his
fubjedls by v/ife laws; and Stephen his fonj^
who trode in his fteps, obtains from the pope,
the title of the apoftle of Hungary. Ruffia
about the fame time becomes Chriftian, accord-
ing to the worfhip of the Greek church.-
Uladimir marries a Greek, embraces her re^
ligicn, and the dukes of Ruflia begin to be con-
nedled with the other princes of Europe,
Henry I. king of France, takes to wife a Ruflian
princefs.
Navigation and commerce continued to in-
creafe the wealth and pow er of the republic of
Venice, during the eleventh century. She ex-
tended her trade on all fides ; her fleets brought
from Egypt the commodities of Afia, which
were diftributed through Europe. The mer-
chants of Venice were then richer than kings.
The victories obtained by the Venetians over
the Hungarians, fliew the rapid increafe of their
power. It was during this period, that the
paimatians refolved^ after a free and general
deli«
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (167?
deliberation, to fubmit to the Venetians, who
then made a confpicuous figure among the firft
kingdoms of Europe. The Genoefe, after
having been for a long time the fiaves of tyrants,
break their chains, banifh thofe that opprefled
them, eled a doge, eitablifli a fenate, form a
marine, and fee themfelves, in a few years, in a
fituation to difpute with the Venetians, the em-
pire of the fea, and to fnare with them in the
advantages of commerce.
Revolutions, — Germany, during the eleventh
<:entury, was much weakened by the defire of
its emperors to keep pofTeflion of Italy. The
quarrels between the priefthood and the empire,
were the caufe of revolts, which iliook the
throne, and put an end to all authority.
The revolution in the family of Pepin, which
took place in France, in favour of Hugh Capet,
fprang from the difmemberment of the provin-
ces, when Charles the Fat was depofed. His
fucceflbrs had loft the greateft part of their
dominions ; only Rheims and fome other cities
remained in their polTelTion. A power fo weak,
could not hold for a length of time, the reins of
a feudal government, which fliould have had a
chief more powerful than his valTals. It was
not in their power to ftop foreign invafions, to
prevent the diforders of civil war, and caufe
their authority to be refpedted by their fubjecls.
This want of power, the fource of many evils,
L 4 expofed
(1 68) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IIL
expofed them to the nation's hatred and con-
tempt. Difcontent became general. A revo-
lution was working for fome time, and when it
happened, it was reafonable to think it would be
in favour of Hugh, one of the mod powerful
barons in France, and who, by his fignalfer-
vices, had endeared himfelf to the people. —
The clergy, a formidable body, haftened the
revolution. Charles of Lorrain, the lawful heir
of Louis V. imprifoned a debauched prieft. This
the clergy confidered as an infult done to their
order, and, in the. fpirit of revenge, alienated
the affedlions of the nation from him. They
point to Hugh Capet as the alone fupport of
the flate, and lend their affiflance to place him
on the throne. Hence, the gratitude of Hugh
and his fon to the minifters of the church.
Caufes alfo exifted to produce a revolution
in England, in favour of WiUiam of Normandy.
The Engliih, who had often had flrangers to be
their kings, as the Saxons and Danes, might be
lefs averfe to the defigns of William, than they
otherwife would. Harold was not of the Sax-
on line of kings ; he had feized on the throne,
in prejudice of the lawful heir; and, though
the right of fucceilion was not then properly
known nor defined, yet many would be convin-
ced in their own minds, that Edgar Atheling's
right was much better founded, than that of
Harold. This would make them averfe to his.
govern-
Lect. III. MODERN HISTORY. (169)
government ; and^ fince they were too weak to
place the proper heir on the throne, to favour
the Norman's pretenfions rather than his. —
Some of the great barons, whofe right to the
crown of England was as good as Harold's,
might be offended at the preference ; and, fince
they could not reign themfelves, might favour
a revolution in behalf of a foreigner. William's
expedition was fandlioned by the pope ; and,
in thofe days of ignorance and credulity, the
approbation or difapprobation of his holinefs
had a powerful effedt upon the minds of men.
Harold, v/ith the pope's anathemas on his back,
would be deferted by many of his fubjeds, as
one devoted to deflrucflicn ; while William,
attended with the bleiling of Rome, would be
coniidered as a favourite of heaven. The fpirit
of the times, the warlike genius of William,
and the courage of his troops, contributed
greatly to the Norman revolution. But the
principal caufe (which is not improper to men-
tion even in hiftory) was, the interpofition of
providence wifely diredting human affairs. —
National changes and revolutions happen not
by chance: they take place by the appoint-
ment of the Almighty Governor of this world;
fo that while men appear to have the dirediion
of fuch events, they are really conducted by an
inviiible hand. The time for a revolution, in
the courfe of providence, was come; therefore,
tlarold
(170) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
f;, Harold was defeated and flain, and William af-
cended the throne of England.
LECTURE IV.
-o-
^ketch of the Hlftory of Eaftern Nations y — Maho-^
mety bis ReligioUy his Progrefsy and that of his
SucceJforSy Laws, — Manners y — ArtSy — Chi^
valry,
China. — -TT is probable to fuppofe, that the
^ Chinefe are of Egyptian original.
At leaft, (if we may credit what travellers fay)
there is a flriking refemblance between the in-
iubitants of China, and the ancient Egyptians.
J3e that as it may, the Chinefe nation fecms to
be of great antiquity, lince the arts are faid to
liave flouriflied among them, prior to the times
of which we have any certain knowledge. But it
admits of doubt, if the Chinefe nation is fo very
ancient, as they would have us believe. The
origin of all nations, as defcribed by hiflorians,
(the writers of the facrcd books only excepted)
is partly blended with fable. The Chinefe, as
their charad:er is defcribed in Anfon's voyage,
do not appear to deferve the praife beftowed
ypon them by fome modern authors. — Though
a vcffel
I.ECT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (171)
a vefTel of the fize of the Centurion, had never
been ken in their feas, yet the Chincfe paid no
attention to fuch an objed:. Thole who have
had dealings with them, reprefent them as a
cowardly people, of a knavifli difpofition, ready
to pradlife the tricks of chicane and impolition.*
The Chinefe empire has not felt thofe revoluti-
ons which have fo often convulfed other nations.
This may, in part, be owing to the great re-
venue of the emperor, who is not tempted,
from a fcanty income, to change the conftitu-
tion; and partly from the people having no
defire to enjoy a more free form of government.
Their knowledge, from the difficulty of learn-
ing the characters of their language, is very
limited ; they are conftantly employed in ao-ri-
culture and commerce, have a ftrong attachment
to ancient cufloms, and obliged to a frequent
attendance upon religious ceremonies ; this
leaves them no time to think of an alteration
in the form of their government. They obey
without reludlance, fo their prefent conftitution
be preferved to them. The Chinefe are a rich
people. The commodities of their country,
having now found their way into every part of
the world, bring them gold and fiiver in abund-
ance. But, attached to ancient cufloms,
wealth has not affeded the manners of the
Chinefe, in the way it has done the manners of
|he Europeans. Con-
• See Mlllot.
(172) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.TV.
Confucius, a Chinefe philofopher, is faid to
have fiouriihed long before the Chriftian a^ra,
and that his defcendants flill fublift in China.
He \^as a great man. Moral philofophy was
his favourite ftudy, and the maxims attributed
to him (if really his) are wholly practical. —
Thefe are fome of them. " He is only a phi-
« lofopher, who has a profound knowledge of
" men and things ; who examines and yields to
*^ reafon, always walking in the paths of truth
*^ and juftice. There is a celeftial reafon, and
*^ there is a worldly fupplement to it. Celefliai
<^ reafon is the portion of the faint; the i j^)ple-
" ment is that of the fage. The wife min is
*' his own fevered cenfurer ; he is hi^ own
"judge, his own witnefs and accufer. — Charity
** is a rational and conftant affediion, which
** engages us to confult and promote the good
i' of mankind, being part of the whole united
*^ to our fellow men, and partaking equally of
" their profperity and adverfity."
Ltdia. — The Indians are of great antiquity.
A chain of mountains divides Hindoltan from
Tartary on the north ; from China on the eail ;
and from Perfia on the weft; the reft of the
country is furrounded by the fea. India, on
this fide the Ganges, was long under the domi-
nion of the Perfians. Alexander the Great
pufhed his conquefls as far as that country. The
Greeks^ before the time of Alexander, travelled
into
Lect. iV. MODERN HISTORY. (173)
into India in quefl of knowledge. Pythagoras
was inflrudted by the Indian Gymnofophifts,
From them he received the dodcrine of the
Iran fmig rat ion of fouls : a dod:rine which had
always prevailed in India. It is alfo faid, that
from the Gymnofophiils he received the cele^
brated Theorm, viz. the three angles of a triw
angle are equal to two rights ones. — Philpay
was their mofl celebrated writer; he wrote
moral fables. The theology of the Brachmans
is a good proof, that the Indian religion, like
all others, was originally founded on primary
truths, known to all men, which are the fub-
ftance of natural religion. Superflition intro-
duced a cuftom among the Indians ; a cuftom
which Hill continues ; a cuftom at which na-
ture ihudders. When a hufband dies, one of
his wives (for polygamy is law^ful in that coun-
try) has the privilege of being burnt upon his
funeral pile. His wives, encouraged by the
Bramans, contend for the honour ; and Ihe who
dies in this manner, is thought to have the
greatefl: aftedion for him : — a ftrange proof of
conjugal love 1 No abfurdities or cruelties are
impoffible to an over-heated imagination.
European wives may think themfelves happy,
that no fuch proof of their alfedtion to a decea-
fed hufband is required of them.
Before the beginning of the fifteenth century,
the Europeans knew India only by name. The
Ara-
(174) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. iVa
Arabians, who traded with the inhabitants of
that country, fold its productions at Conftan-
tinople and Alexandria, and the Franks brought
them from thence into Europe. The Venetians
aftewards became the merchants of Europe,
and brought from Alexandria the merchandize
of the eaft. But when the Portuguefe difcover-
cd a palTage to India by the Cape of Good
Hope, and when navigation was rendered eafy
by the difcovery of the loadllone, and the ma-
riner's compafs ; the Europeans brought into
their feveral countries, Indian commodities in
much greater abundance, and at an ealier rate.
— But more of this in the fequel.
Perfia, — The Perfians were always an ingeni-
ous people. The famous Lockman, who
taught morality by way of fable or allegory,
was a Perfian. The tenets of Zoroafter, fo well
known, ftill fubfift in Perfia.
Noufhirvan, or Cofroes the Greats had, about
the end of the (ixth century, extended the Per-
fian empire into Arabia, fpread terror through
the eafl, taken the city of Antioch, and obliged
Juftinian, the Greek emperor, to make peace,
by paying a large fum of money, and to promife
a yearly fubfidy. The children of Cofroes the
Great, unworthy of fuch a father, defolated
Perfia by civil wars and murders.
Mahomet y i^c. — Whilrl: an inundation of bar-
barians was fpread ing terror and death through
Europe^
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (i7j|
Europe, Mahomet was laying, in the deferts of
Arabia, the foundations of a new religion, which
ftill fubfifts, and of the future power of the
Saracens. The revolution in religion which
Mahomet produced in Arabia, and the effedt it
had on other kingdoms, deferve an attentive
confide ration. For a man, by the mere ftrength
of natural abilities, (without education, wealth,
or friends) to unite favage hordes, fcattered over
an exteniive country, to animate them with one
fpirit, and make them all purfue the fame end ;
to bring them to fubmit to his religion, autho-
rity, and laws ; to work them up to adl fo con-
fpicuous a part on the theatre of this world ; to
overturn the ancient religion and throne of
Peifia, a talk the Roman arms could never ac-
complilh; to deprive the emperors of Con-
flantinople of the richeft provinces of Aiia, and
of almoft the whole of Africa ; to become
mailers of Spain, threaten the red* of Europe
with flavery, and to form, in lefs than a century,
the moft exteniive empire that ever exiited :
J fay, for a man without education, friends, or
wealth, to do this, flrikes the mind with allo-
niihment, and we are curious to inquire into
the caufes of this great event.
The Arabians were unknown to other na-
tions. Divided by families, or by feparate and
independent hordes, they fometimes united for
the purpofe of a plundering excurfion, the only
rcfourcc
(176) MODERN HISTORY. Lrcr.IV*
refource of thofe Arabs m ho lived upon the
frontiers. To tend their flocks was the chief
employment of thofe who lived in the interior
parts of the country. Without .a fixed abode,
they tranfported their moveable houfes from
place to place upon carts. Cities, or large
towns, were built in thofe parts of Arabia
bordering on the fea, or in the neighbourhood
of the Roman provinces. In them, the pro-
duce of the ground, their flocks, and plunder
were watchfully kept. The Arabians, who
lived in thofe large towns, were under no check,
fave the authority of fome of the richefl: among
them. Without fixed laws, certain principles,
and lawful fubordination, they gave themfelves
up to the indulgence of every excefs* Their
manners were horridly licentious. Every fen-
timent of candour, humanity, and modefliy, was
crafed from their hearts. Their religion was
the mofl: ftupid idolatry, compounded of the
worfl: tenets of the different feels w ith which
Afia abounded. The Arabians believed tticm-
felves to be the defcendants of Abraham ; they
ufed circumcifion, wafhing, purifications, and
counted the flefh of certain animals unclean. —
They imagined that the Supreme Being has three
daughters, eternal as himfelf, and they worfhip-
ped a crowd of inferior idols.
The temple of their principal idol was in
Mecca, where the famous Itone Baathra was
kepj.
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (177)
kept, which (if we may credit fome hiflorians)
became black when a perfon lofl his innocence.
They w^ent in pilgrimage to Mecca from every
parr of Arabia. It was the holy city by v/ay of
eminence. The refort of pilgrims increafed
the wealth and confequence of the inhabitants,
who were refpecled as the molt conliderable
tribe in Arabia.
Birth of Mahomet.— The tribe of the Koraf-
chites held the firil rank in Mecca. Mahomet,
defcended from a younger branch of this fa-
mily, was born in the year five hundred and
feventy-one, of the Chriftian sera. His parents
dying almoft as foon as he was born, Aboutaleb,
his uncle by the father's fide, brought him up.
From his uncle he went to live with a fhop-
keeper in Mecca, and foon gained the confi-
dence of his mafler. He having failed, Ma-
homet was fold a flave to an Ifhmaelitifh
merchant, who fent him on his employ into
Syria. There, while Mahomet was attending to
the affairs of his employer, he had an opportu-
nity to fee, to fludy, and compare the manner
in which the Romans lived; their legiflation,
government, manners, and chiefly their religion*
In the country where Mahomet then was, the
law and the gofpel, or Judaifm and Chriftianity,
were blended together. He compared the two
religions ; and, ftruck with the great reputation
of Mofes and Jefus Chrili, forms the projed of
M becoming
fiySJ MODERN HISTORY. Lect. I?.
becoming the author of a new religion, which
might enlighten and polifh his countrymen. —
He foon emancipates himfelf from fiavery^
enters into the employ of Cadigah, a rich widow,
and marries her. His circumftances changed
from poverty to opulence, he the more eagerly
purfues his fcheme, his marriage furnifhes him
with the necelTary affiftance, and he becomes
the head of a new fed. To bring his projedt
to bear, he affeds a folitary life, performs many
a6ls of charity, retires fometimes into the defert,
and returns with an air of ailonifliment im-
prefTed on his countenance. By this conducl:>
he procures admirers, fpeaks of the revelations
he was favoured with, and brings over his wife
Cadigah to believe them to be true. The fame
of Mahomet and his revelations foon fpreads
through Mecca: crowds go to hear the new
prophet, and the number of his followers daily
increafes.
The fundamental do6trines of Mahomet's
new religion, are thefe; to believe the unity of
God ; that he is eternal, infinite, wife, and
good, the creator of the world, the fupporter
and friend of man; to love and pray to him
feven times a day, to think continually of him,
and to honour him by religious ceremonies.
To obferve the laws of fociety, which promote
and fecure our own and our neighbour's happi-
nefs ; to love all men, to fupporc the poor, and
be
Lect.IV. modern history. (179)
be merciful to all, not excepting that part of
the animal creation which is ufeful to man;
fuch are thfe docftrines Mahomet taught. He
adapted the moral part of his religion to the
fenfual appetites of the Arabians. Living in a
warm climate, the love of unlawful pleafure
with the female fex, was their predominant
pafTion. Mahomet allowed his followers the
ufe of four wives, and of flaves, as many as they
chofe. He, in quality of prophet, allowed
himfelf fifteen. Though barbaroufly intolerant^
he took care not to difcover this fpirit at the
commencement of his miflion ; knowing that
inhumanity would render him odious, and en-
tirely fruilrate his views.
Convinced that men need external figns to
remind them of their duty, Mahomet inflituted
the particular ceremonies of circumciiion, pil-
grimage to Mecca, and frequent ablutions ; and
declared, that God bound the faithful to the
performance ^f thefe. He acknowledged
Abraham, Mofes, and Jefus Chrift, to have
been great prophets, the two firft of whom had
given laws, adapted only to the Jews ; that the
blelTed Jefus, infinitely greater, wifer, and more
the objevfl of God's love, had comprehended the
whole earth in his miffion ; but that Chriftians
having become corrupted, God had chofen
Mahomet his laft: prophet, to rertore truth and
M 2 virtUQ
(i8o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
virtue to the earth. To the faithful, he pro-
mifed thofe taken captive in war, and a paradifc,
his fenfual imagination had filled with all forts
of pleafures, particularly the enjoyment of
beautiful women: a dodirine, which, with that
of fatalifm, was calculated to infpire his fol-
lowers with an enthufiafm fuperior to dangers
and death. In a word, Mahomet faid, that the
angel Gabriel interpreted to him the will of
God, brought thefe laws to him from heaven,
and the book in which they were written.
This is the fpirit of Mahomet's religion, and
the fubftance of the Alcoran. The Arabian
impoftor, to gain the affedlion of the virtuous,
wifely incorporated Chriftian morality into his
fyilem ; and to pK'^afe the vulgar, always attach-
ed to fuperftition, he allowed many errors of their
ancient worfhip ftill to remain. Indeed, the
Alcoran abounds in confufion, abfurditics, and
contradictions, with innumerable religious, po-
litical, hiftorical, and chronologR:al errors ; but
the poetry is fublime, and this work is efteemed
the mafter-piece, and model of the Arabian
language.
The new prophet, however, found oppofers ;
a formidable cabal fet themfelves againfb him ;
authorit:y endeavoured to bring him to an ac-
count, and to punifh him as a cheat and fediti-
ous perfon. Perfecuted in Mecca, he flies to
Medina^
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (i8i)
Medina,* where his famiticifm fpread with
amazing rapidity. The inhabitants of Medina
foon become profelytes to his doctrine, proclaim
him their chief, and acknowledge fubje(5lion to
no other. He puts himfelf at the head of his
followers, determined to flied the laft drop of
their blood in his caufe ; he marches to Mecca,
which opens her gates, and fubmits to him as
her fovereign. From thence he traverfes Arabia,
reduces to his obedience, the Arabian hordes,
till then divided from, and independent of each
other, and becomes their king and pried.
Having reduced all Arabia, Mahomet turns
his arms againft the Romans, defeats them, and
takes from them the provinces tliey had been in
pofTelTion of for feveral centuries. After hav-
ing performed many wonderful exploits, he dies
at Medina, leaving his country united by his
religion, polilhed by his laws, and formidable
to its neighbours. Finding himfelf dying, he
convenes his friends, and recommends three
things to be always obferved by his followers ;
to be frequent in prayer, to extirpate idolatry
from Arabia, and to beftow upon every profe-
lyte, all the privileges of muiTulmen. This ad-
vice was refpedled as the command of heaven.
M 3 Abubeker,
* From Mahomet's flight, which happened A. D. 622, in
the 44th year of his age, and i oth of his minillry, the Maho-
metans compute their time, and the sera is called in Arabic,
Hegiraj u s. flight.
(1 82) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
Abubeker^ Omar, Ali, and Caled, were the
5 four captains, whom Mahomet called the fword
of God. Ali was married to Fatima, his daugh-
ter by Cadigah, and he intended him for his
fuccefTor. But the preference i^ given to Abu-
beker, who takes the title of caliph, or the
prophet's vicar. Abubeker marches to the cen-
tre of Arabia, quells a revolt, palTes into Pale-
ftine, defeats the army of Heraclius the Greek
emperor, takes Jerufalem, advances to Damaf-
cus, in two years fubdues the greateft part of
Syria; and, having obtained a great reputation
for wifdom and moderation, dies poor.
Omar, who fucceded him, completes the re-
duction of Syri'-i, finifhes the conqueft of Chaldea
and Mefopotamia in one campaign, deftroys
the Perlian empire in the fpace of two years ;
whilft Amrou, one of his generals, conquers
Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia. *
Othman
* The conquefl of Egypt by the Saracens was attended with
one misfortune, which every lover of learning cannot but la-
ment ; and that is, the deftruflion of the library of Alexandria.
This famous library was founded by the firft Ptolemies, and
was fo much enlarged and improved by their futfceffors, that it
amounted to the number of feven hundred thoufand volumes,
it confided of two parts, one in that quarter called Bruchion,
containing four hundred thoufand volumes, and the other with-
in the Serapeum, containing three hundred thoufand volumes.
It happened, that while Julius Csefar was making war upon
;he inhabitants of Alexandria, the library in Bruchion, toge-
ther
Leg T. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (183}
Othman, his fucceffor, completes the con-
quefl of Perfia; and Mohavia, his relation and
friend, pofTefles himfelf of the weftern part of
Africa, defolates the i (lands in. the Archipelago,
feizes upon Rhodes, palfes into Sicily, and car*
ries alarm to the very centre of Italy. Not with-
M 4 ftanding
tlierAvith other buildings, was burnt, and the four hundred
thoufand volumes which were kept therein, were all burnt.
But this lofs was, in fome meafure, repaired by the Pergamean
library, confifting of two hundred thoufand yolumes, which
Antony prefented to Cleopatra, and by the addition of other
books afterwards, fo that this latter library, was reckoned as
numerous and as famous as the other ever was, and it came to
the fame fatal end, this being alfo deftroyed by fire. John the
Grammarian, a famous philofopher of Alexandria, being in
great favour with Amrou, the Saracen general, aflced of him
the royal library. Amrou replied, that it was not in his
power to give it him, without leave firft obtained from the
emperor of the faithful. Amrou therefore wrote to Omar,
and acquainted him with John's petition, to which the caliph
returned this anfwer ; that if what was x:ontained in thofe
books was agreeable to the book of God, or the Koran, the
Koran was fuihcient without them ; but if it was repugnant to
the Koran, it was no ways ufeful ; and therefore he command-
ed them to be deftroyed. Ararou in obedience to the caliph*s
commands, ordered them to be diftributed among the baths of
the city, and to be burnt in warming them, whereof thierc
were no fewer at -that time in Alexandria than four thoufand:
and yet there pafTed fix months before the books were all con-
fumed ; which fufficiently evinces hov/ great their number was,
and what an ineftimable lofs, not only Egypt, but all the
learned world hath fuftalncd.
Neivton's Df/, Proph. voU L o^avOfp* 389.
(1 84) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
Handing the great fuccefs of his arms, the caliph
is murdered by a furious mob, flirred up by the
partizans of Abbas and Ali. All takes poffef-
fion of the throne, but is foon afTailinated ; and
Mohavia II. being raifed to the califat, unites
Armenia and Natolia to his dominions, carries
his arms to the very walls of Conllantinople ;
and at laft, becoming a prey to jealoufy, fullics
his glory by fliedding torrents of human blood.
In the reign of Valid I. the Arabians, under the
conduct of Mufa, conquer Spain, pafs the Py-
rennecs, and penetrate into the heart of France.
Solymanpurfues his father's projed:s : he orders
one of his generals to befiege Conftantinople,
another to march to Paris, and then the two ar-
mies to join at Rome,- but death would not allow
him to fee the completion of thofe vafl deiigns.
Mahomet's more immediate fucceiTors were
all warriors ; they took pleafure in ^var, and
knew how to make it. 7 he Arabians, difciples
of poverty and toil, panting for war» and eager
for prey, furm.ounted every obitacle in the firit
tranfport of enthufiafm. Warmed with a lively
faith, perfuaded that the MOST HIGH had
given them the earth for a poiTeUion, but that
they muft merit it by their valour, they attack-
ed their enemies with a fury nothing could re-
lift. Terror and defolation marched before them.
In a battle with the Romans, feeing their ge-
3ierai taken prifoner, they fled : a captain flops
them.
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (185)
them, and cries, " Have you forgotten, that to
turn your back on the enemy, is to offend God
and his prophet? What though Derar be a
prifoner? God lives and fees you.'* Anioiated
with thefe words, the Saracens return to the
charge, and cut the Romans in pieces. One
of their generals thus harangues them before a
battle ; '^ MulTuhTien, think that paradife is be-
fore you; the devil and hell behind you.'* A
muflulman condemned by Mahomet, appealed
to Omar: Omar being told his grievance,
and that he had appealed to him for redrefs,
draws his fabre, cuts off his head, and exclaims,
** This he deferves who has the rafhnefs to ap-
peal from the fentence of the prophet." When
to natural courage, daily exercifed by poverty,
dangers and fatigue, a paflion, as ftrong as that of
fanaticifm, is joined, the people, under the influ-
ence of thefe, muff perform wonders and be
triumphant. The Arabians (by nature brave)
were all warriors. Upon them, foreign armies
could make no impreffion. Before the religion
of Mahomet had united them, they were the
caufe of uneafmefs to the Roman emperors and
fenatc. But how much more formidable when,
joining difcipline to enthufiafm, they were com-
manded by captains, heroes by birth ; by cap-
tains, born amidft the noife of arms ? " We
bring you, faid they, paradife or hell. Tou
muff embrace iflamifm, or p^^y tribute, or tali
under
fr 86) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
under the ftroke of our fcymitars : and the Sa^
racens kept their word. Under the firfl caliphs,
their manners were ferocious, breathing only
war and zeal for religion ; of every thing elfe,
they were wholly ignorant. Under the lail
princes of the Ommiadas, their manners took
a fofter turn, their courage became lefs barbaii-
ous, though no lefs intrepid. Under the Abaf-
lidae, their m.anners were highly civilized, the
fciences and fine arts appeared among them,
while the reft of the world was involved in the
darknefs of ignorance and bigotry.
Another caufe v/hich contributed to the fur-
prifing fuccefs of the Arabians, was the weak-
nefs of thofe againft whom they direcfted their
attacks. They found upon their entrance into
Aiia, the Romans and Perfians, once two cele-
brated nations, exhaufted by their long wars with
one another. The peace concluded betweea
Heraclius ard the cruel Siroes afforded repofe to
the two empires, only from foreign attacks;
they were ftill rent by domeftic commotions.
The family of Cofroes tore in pieces the king-
dom of Perfia by their cruel difputes. Thefc
circumftances were favourable to the Saracens.
They attacked Perfia, and, in three campaigns,
conquered that empire.
The Roman empire was ftill in a weaker ftate.
The difmemberment of the weft, had given a
r terrible blow to the caft. The efforts of the
Greeks
Lect.1V. modern history. (187)
Greeks to retain the wreck of Italy exhaufted
the ftate. The inability of the emperors of Con-
ftantinople for government, the many bloody
revolutions v/liich fliook the throne, the de-
bauchery of the court, the feditious factions of
the circus; theological quarrels, the caufe of
hatred and difunion, a general corruption of
manners ; in a word, that fatal madnefs of tak-
ing the monkifh habit, whereby many fubjeds
became of no iife for the defence of their coun-
try; all thefe caufes did naturally facilitate the
triumphs of mulTulmen, ,
Opinion of Mahomet and his religmi. — To fay,
with the Greek monks and their copiers, that
Mahomet was nothing but a cheat, an ignorant
and barbarous wretch, who, with the fabre in
his hand, propagated a religion, abfurd in its
dodrines, and licentious in its morals, would
be to view truth through the medium of igno-
rance and the fpirit of party. To alTert on the
other hand, that Mahomet's aftonilhingprogrefs
was the effed; of perfuafion, and of the power
of his genius ; that it was the caliphs, his fuc-
ceiTors, who extended Mahometifm by force of
arms, would be to deny the truth, and refill: the
evidence of hiftorical facfts. Let us attend to
truth, and not be warped by the bias of falfe-
hood.
Ambition fuggefted to Mahomet the projed
of uniting the Arabian tribes under his domi-
nion ;
(J 88) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
nion; and, as religion adls mofl powerfully upon
men, his genius made choice of it as the mofi:
certain and effedlual means. He forefaw the
obftacles which would oppofe his intentions,
but he knew how to furmount them. The
dangers in(eparable from fuch an cnterprife did
not intimidate him. He purfued his end with
a conftancy and pliantnefs which force fuccefs.
At firfl he aded the part of an impofcor. He
often feparated himfelf from the company and
converfation of men, afFeded great aufterities,
was profufely charitable, faid he was infpired of
heaven, fell into trances, &c. Some have
thought, he might at laft believe as true, the
falfehoods his imagination had forged. A warm
imagination foon fubjeCls the judgment, fo as
to be diredled by it. That might happen to
Mahomet, which has happened to many other
cnthuiiafts, who extenuated by corporal aufteri-
ties, have firmly believed, as true, what had no
cxillence but in their difordered brain. The
anfwer he gave to his relations and friends, who
preiTed him to renounce his entcrprifc, becaufc
of the danger which threatened him from the
magiftratcs of Mecca, would induce one to
believe this was his cafe, " Were you to come
faid he, with the fun on one lide and the moon
on the other, I would not betray the confidence
Cod has placed in me." His firmnefs upon all
cccalions, that tone of infpiration fo powerful
over
Lect.IV. modern history. (189)
over minds addidted to fuperftition, the perfe-
cution he fufFered ; all tlitCc warmed the ima-
gination ,and increafed the number of his pro-
felytcs. They increafed with an amazing ra-
pidity. His fame foon fpread through Arabia ;
crowds came from all parts to hear the new
prophet ; and being arrived at Medina, in which
his enemies obliged him to take fhelter, he was
furprifed to find there a number to whom his
docflrine was agreeable. So far indeed, we can-
not fay that his progrefs was owing to the force
of arms ; artful perfuafion mufl have wrought
upon their credulous minds. But when Maho-
met found himfelf fufRciently powerful, he de-
clared to his followers, that he was efpecially
fent from heaven, to convert the Arabians ; and
that the only means to turn them from idolatry,
was to march againft them fword in hand.
When, in the firfl battle, in which he was vic-
torious, he conftrained his prifoners to embrace
the new religion, and put to death, thofe who
refufed to fubmit; then it was fanaticifm, which,
armed with the fword, propagated Mahometifm,
and compelled men to embrace it. Hence Ma-
homet, who began by being ambitious, a cheat,
and an enthufiafl, ended with being a tyrant to
all thofe who refufed to believe his impious re-
veries. This is too often the condue^t of the
human mind.
The religion of Mahopet, though infinite-
(190) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV,
ly inferior to the religion of Je/us Chrifly is
much fuperior, to the grofs errors and flupid
idolatry which prevailed in Arabia before
his time* It teaches the unity of God, the
precept of almfgiving, and forgivenefs of in-
juries. It is faid, Mahomet could not have
made fo many profelytes, had he not allowed
them the free indulgence of their paflions. This
aflertion is perhaps unjufl. The Mahometan
religion is auflere in comparifon of that licen-
tioufnefs to which the Arabs were addicfled.
Mahomet enjoined his difciples the exercife of
frequent prayer, ablutions, alms, and failing,
the prohibition of wine, and of that crime {o
contrary to nature ; a crime common among the
Arabians: all this was a yoke too heavy for a
people accuftomed to indulge their brutal paf*
fions without controul. It is, we think, more
reafonable to believe, that Mahomet could not
have gained the affections of his countrymen,
and brought them to adopt a new religion, but
by propoiing a law more pure and noble, than
that they had before ; and by affediing an ex-
ternal fandity which fails not to captivate little
minds. We may conclude that, when a perfon
forms a great delign, and to accomplifh it, has
the courage to take every proper ftep that may
fecure fuccefs ; when he can join patience to
prudence, and lay hold of every favourable cir-
cumftance; when, after having found out what
IS
Lect.IV. modern history. (191)
is mod: capable to imprefs the minds of men in
general, he can make the particular character,
manners, and different forms of worfhip of his
country, bow to his fyflem, and at lafl: become
an abfolute monarch, without any right to be
fo ; let us conclude, that this man is neither fo
ignorant, nor fo barbarous, as we are apt to
believe. But though there are fome good things
in the Mahometan religion, there are many
bad ; and though its founder mui be allowed to
have been a great man, ftill he v/is an impoflor,
and his religion an impoflurc.
The mulTulman empire was at its highefl
pitch of glory in the ninth century. Haroun-al-
Rafchid, to the magnificence of his illuftrious
predecefTors, joined the focial virtues, and a mod
amiable condud:. He applied himfelf to polifh
the manners of his fubjccls, and by his own
example and authority, to give them a tafte for
the arts and fciences. He invited learned men
from every part of the eafl to his court, cherifhed
their genius by rewards, and caufed the mofl va-
luable writings of antiquity to be tranflated into
Arabic : he took the greatefl: delight in poetry :
he was often feen to fhed tears when reading: the
works of celebrated poets. The Arabians are
Iavi{h in their eulogiums upon his reign, which
they call the reign of wonders and magnificence.
They tell us, his minifters, generals, courtiers,
and judges, were formed upon his example.
Bagdad,
(193) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
Bagdad, the metropolis of the Saracen empire,
was the centre of knowledge, from whence it
fpread through his extenfive dominions. This
illufcrious caliph was no lefs brave than learned.
His expeditions againft the Turks, the fuccefs
of his armsagainfl the emperor Niccphorus, his
acTtivity in quelling feditions, fhew that he knew
liow to join the talents of a hero, to the wifdom
of a philofopher. We fhall defcribe only one
feature of his condudl as a king. A woman
complained to j him, that his jToldiers in their
march had damaged her lands, Haroun <ie-
iired her to remember that it is written in the
Alcoran, '* When the armies of great princes
take the field, the owners of the lands through
which they pafs, mufi: fufFer.'' Yes prince,
replied the woman, but it is alfo faid in the fame
book, " That the lands of thofe princes who
permit injuftice, Ihall be defolated." Flaroun,
whofe charader was a compound of humanity
and juflice, ordered her iofs to be made up, and
loaded her with favours.
The reign of Al-Amin, the fon and fucceflbr
of Haroun, was a fcene of civil commotions
between him and his brodier Al-Mamon. —
Exceflively indolent, he entrufted the reins of
government with Al-Fadel, who, out of hatred
to Al-Mamon, advifcd his malter to change the
fuccellion : fatal counfcl, which hurled him from
his throne.
Al-Mamon
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (193)
Al-Mamon became caliph, and revived the
lufire of his father's reign. He made fuccefsful
War at one and the fame time againft the Greek
emperor, in Africa and Italy. His tieets carried
terror to the gates of Rome, conquered Sicily
and the ifland of Crete, which, from that time,
took the name of Candia, from a city built
there by the mufTulmen. The fciences flourifh-
ed greatly under this prince's reign. A better
fcholar, and more humane than Haroun, his fa-
ther, an enemy to enthufiafm and fuperftition,
the friend of Truth, to which all his refearches
were directed, he employed his authority and
wealth to proted:, honour, and reward men of
genius of every religion, and country. He fpcnt
a great part of his revenue in purchaiing the
jmoft valuable treatifes upon every kind of fub-
jedl, that could be found in Europe and Greece,
Patronized by him, aftronomy, philofophy, and
medicine, were cultivated upon true principles,
and made a hitherto unknown progrefs. Study
was his delight, and no man who purfues thefe
fciences by profeflion, could be more alliduous
than he was. His mild condud to the Chnf-
tians, who during his reign, enjoyed an uninter-
rupted repofe, his bounty in return, for the
knowledge he received from them, drew upon
him the hatred of muilulmen. They accuied
him of Motalizm, or herefy, becaufe he believed
the Alcoran to be created, rejected the reveries
Z N . of
(194) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
of Mahomet with refpedl to future rewards
and punifiiments^ and becaufe he was defirous
to banifli from the religion he profeiTed, foll^,
fuperftition, bigotr) , and intolerance. He was
hated by Mahometan devotees, for endeavour-
ing to introciuce the ftudy of philofophy and
other fciences among his fubjecls, upon princi-
ples conformable to right reafon. We are forrj
to fmd one ipot in the charader of this great
prince. His enthufiafm for philofophy made
him a perfecutor. He would oblige his fub-
jecTcs to embrace his opinions, and puniilied,
w^ith torture and death, thofe who refufed. In
this he was elTentially wrong. True philofo-
phy, like true religion, is an enemy to all kinds
of perfecution. It never ufes barbarous means
of perfualion. It is unjuft, it is cruel, -to hurt
any perfon, even when we wifli to undeceive
him of dangerous errors.
He was fucceeded by his brother MotalTem,
who, like AUMamon, was a warlike prince, a
lover of learning, and an enemy to fuperflition.
Watheck rrode in his fteps. After the death of
Watheck, the Saracen empire fuffered an eternal
cclipfe. His brother who fucceeded to the
call fat, was remarkable for his debauchery,
cruelty, and fuperflition. Hated by his fubjeds,
his fon, a monfter of wickedncfs, deprives him
of life. The horrid crime places him on the
throne, but his mifcondud: foon hurls him from
it.
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (195)
it. From that period, difcord, civil wars, and
repeated revolts, tear in pieces the provinces of
the Arabian empire. Luxury and effeminacy
find their way to the court of Bagdad. Taxes
increafe, and the people are offended. A general
difcontent prevails, and the governors of pro-
vinces feize the opportune moment to difmem-
ber the empire. Amidfl this general confufion,
the Fatamites, always opprelfed by the AbafUdae,
fee a proper opportunity to obtain their freedom.
All, who revered the memory of Ali, are invited
to their flandards. Crowds join them, religion
ferves as a pretext for their revolt, they found a
powerful empire in Africa; and, having con-
quered Egypt, Grand Cairo becomes the capital
of thefe new^ caliphs;
Wrong ideas of religion produced a fliii
more remarkable revolution. An enthufiafb,
forms the projeft of converting the idolaters in
the deferts of Africa. Other enthuiiafts join
him, fo that he is foon the head of a numerous
body of ignorant and deluded people. Intoxi-
cated with fuccefs, he believes himfelf autho-
rifed by heaven, to reform the Mahometans,
who had departed from the purity of the religi-
on of their prophet. The Contagion of fuper-
ftition fpreads. Profelytcs throng to his ban-
ners. Means are ufed to flop the defigns of
thefe fe^laries, and the fire of perfecution is
kindled. The caliph excommunicates them,
N 2 and
(196) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
and they become mad with rage. An Abube-
leer marches at their head ; warmed with cnthu-
fiafm, they beat their enemies, and renounce
all allegiance to the pontiffs of Bagdad and
Cairo. Their chief declares himfelf caliph by
the name of Miramolin, and as king and priefl,
reigns over the weftern parts of Africa. Thus
three caliphs, each calling himfelf the fucceflbr
of Mahomet, reign at the fame time, and hurl
againfl: each other the thunderbolts of their
religion.
Turks. — The ancient caliphs loft all but the
eaftern provinces of the Saracen empire, and
thefe were difturbed with fanaticifm and rebel-
lion. The Turks (a word which fignifies
wanderers) came from the interior parts of
Tartary. Having for a long time fought an
opportunity to fettle in the wcftern provinces
of Afia, they found one in this general confu-
lion. Poifeffed of ferocity and courage, the
caliphs of Bagdad thought to find in them a
fupport to their tottering throne. With this
view they take them into pay. The Turks em-
brace iflamifm, reduce the revolters, ftrengthen
the ftate, obtain the chief employments, feizc
upon the government, and leave nothing to the
caliphs but the fhadow of royalty, and the title
ofhigh-prieft of the Mahometan religion.
The Arabians did what they could to oppofe
thefe ftrangers. The quarrel* continued long;,
bu!;
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (197)
but the Turks at length proved yidlorious, and
all came under their dominion.
Caufes of the revolutions in the Saracen empire. —
The fame caufes which brought about a revo-
lution m the empire of Charlemagne, operated
to unhinge and deftroy the empire of the caliphs
of Bagdad.— Without recapitulating thofe cau-
fes, we would obferve, that fanaticifm in par-
ticular, brought about the downfal of the Sara-
cen empire. The fed: of Ali, who believed the
pontiffs of Bagdad to beufurpers^ though kept
under by force, could never be entirely rooted
out. Their fadlion {\\tx\\\y undermined the
throne. Thefe fedaries waited only for a fa-
vourable moment to fhew themfelves, and the
difcord w^hich prevailed in the family of Al-
Mamon, furniflied them wdth one. From that
time Egypt was feparated from the empire of
Bagdad, and the new caliph excommunicated
the old, while his army deprived him of his
richeft provinces. Africa followed the exam-
ple; all the weftern provinces threw off the
yoke of the eaftern caliphs, and formed inde-
pendent kingdoms : fome of which If ill fubliit.
The Turks alfo took from the caliphs the eaft-
ern provinces.* Called to defend the flare,
commanded by generals they were accu domed
to obey, they foon learned. to defpife a fovereign
who never appeared at their head in the day
©f battle, nor fhared in the dangers to which he
N 3 expolcd
(19S) MODERN HISJORY. Lect. IV.
expofed them. They foon deprived him of his
power, fhut him up in his palace, and confidered
him only as chief prielL*
Eajiern cuftoms, maiin-.rsy and arts, — The cuf-
toms and manners of eadern nations were iimi-
lar to thofc which prevailed in Europe fomc
centuries ago. The fables of the eaft, refped:ing
fiipernatural beings, and the romance and fairy
tales of the Europeans, fliew them to have had
the fame notions. It has been already obferved
(if we are not miftaken) that v/hilfl- Europe was
buried in ignorance, the arts and fciences were
cultivated in the eafb. When the Saracens were
fatiated with conquefl, and fixed the feat of
empire at Bagdad, they became .refined in their
manners, and acquired a tafle for the arts.—
Haroun Al-Rafchid and Al-Mamon, enligh-
tened princes, did all they could to infufe into
their fubjedts a love of letters, and a tafte for
thofe fciences which ennoble the mind, and
polilh manners. It was in the reign of Haroun
that the Arabians, vvho were acquainted with
the ufe of figures, brought this art into Europe.
The fame people taught the Europeans the
knowledge of the heavenly bodies. The word
almanac is Arabic. Ben Honain, an Arabi-
an aftronomcr, tranfiated Ptolemy's Almagill
out cf Greek into Arabic. It is faid that Al-
Mamon, to afcertain the true magnitude and
figure
* The rtign of the caliphs of l^agdad continued 6$$ years.
Lect. IV. MODERN HIS'^J^RY. (201)
figure of the earth, ordered a degff^W> ^^^^ ^"^
ridian to be meafured accordhig: ta^ ^"^ north,
rules of geometry. The fame (fays '9^^^ h^^G
was done by the order of Louis XiV. neif^^^^ ^^
centuries after. "ants
Chemiftry and medicine were cultivated W/
the Arabians. — Chemiflry, fo very ufeful to the
natural philofopher, phylician, and manufacflu-
rer, has of late been brought, by the refearches
of learned and ingenious men, to great perfec-
tion; but without the Arabians, the Europeans
would have been ignorant of chemical procefTes.
To them we are indebted for thofe medical
remedies which operate more gently, and have
a more falutary effect, than the medicines ufed
by the phyiicians of Greece and Rome — Algebra
is of Arabian extradlion ; and many other arts
were introduced into Europe by the fame people.
— Clocks and watches, made at Bagdad, were
brought into Europe. Silks from Damafcus,
and other fine fluffs manufadtured in Afia, were
bought by the Europeans at an exorbitant price.
Cutlery ware, particularly wrought fieel, came
from the fame quarter. But though the i^ uro-
peans w^ere for feveral centuries ignorant of the
fcienccs, and though moft of the arts were in-
vented in the eaft ; yet it is in the weft that
they have received a degree of perfec^tion un-
known to the ancients. The Europeans of this
enlightened age excel in every art and Icience.
N 4 And
(200) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV,
And it is an obfervation founded in truth, that
a greater extent of genius, more ftudy and labour
arc required to bring an art to perfection, than
to invent it.
Climate has an influence on the manners of
fociety in every ftage, from rudenefs to refine-
ment. The feveral nations of Gaul in Casfar*s
time were different from each other in their
manners, language and laws : and the Gauls
differed in this refped: from the Germans. —
When the barbarous anceflors of the prefent
European nations ceafed to roam from place to
place, and acquired permanent fettlements, their
manners, in progrefs of time, refembled the
nature of the climate they inhabited. Climate
gives vigour to, or enervates the paflions ; fo
that, according to the temperature of a country,
is the tone of the virtues or vices of the inha-
bitants. The national character and manners of
the Englifh, Scotch, and Irifh, are elfentially
different. The natives of Cumberland are, in
thefe refped:s, unlike the inhabitants of Kent ;
this may be accounted for from difference of cli-
mat'^. The fame difference is vifible between
thofe who inhabit the different climates of Eu-
rope ; by his manners you may eaiily diftinguifh
a Spaniard from a Ruflian or Swede. The for-
mer, though proud, is humane, generous, temper-
ate, his vices partake of the enervating heat of
his climate ; while the virtues and vices of the
latter
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (201)
latter are rough, boiflerous, and hardy, like the
piercing colds, and inclement fkies of the north.
As the manners of the European nations have
always been diflimilar to each other, fo alfo in
this refpect are the manners of the inhabitants
of the ead different from thofe of the weft.
And the difference is ftill more remarkable in
the Chinefe and Indians, than in the northern
inhabitants of Afia. Thefe nations have always
been of foft and effeminate manners, the confe-
quence of climate, which neither time nor ex-
ternal revolutions could change. In general,
people who live in hot climates have received
from nature, manners more foft and gentle than
thofe born in the cold and variable climates of
Europe. The nature of their climate difpofes
them to abflain from ftrong liquors and animal
food ; which inflame the blood, and often incite
to adls of cruelty.
Arabian manners, in the time of Mahomet,
were agreeable to the nature of their climate,
and to the kind of life the Arabians led. — That
impodor made the joys of his paradife purely
fenfual : pleafant gardens, purling ftreams, fliady
bowers, and the enjoyment of beautiful women,
were the rewards he promifed his followers.
A proof, that the torrid zone enervates the
Arabians', forms the complexion of their man-
ners, and particularly inclines them to the love
of women. Voltaire compares their manners
with
(220) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
with thofe of the ancient Hebrews, and fcruplcs
not (though \veare,apt to beheve that enemy of
revelation did it to difcredit the fcripturesj to
give the Arabians the preference. The people of
Arabia^ though theyprofefs Mahometifm, have
always been divided into feparate hordes or
clans; often at war with each other, always in
a ftate of hoftility with the refl" of the world.
This muft make them bold and enterprifing,
fearlefs of danger; but unjuft, thievifh, and
cruel. The manners of robbers are ignorant,
rude, and barbarous ; and fuch were the man-
ners of the Arabians, when Mahomet affumed
amortg them the charadler of a prophet.
We difcover in Mahomet and his fuccelTors,
while propagating his religion with the fword,
manners refembling thofe of heroic times. —
Mahomet, Abubeker, and Omar, refemble the
heroes in Homer's Illiad. In reading the hiflory
of the Saracens, we fee their e^enerals challens-.e
to finglc combat thofe of the enemy ; wc fee
them advance to meet their antagonift, while
the two armies continue quietly to view the
light; they defy one another, they invoke God
before they engage.
It is probable (fays an ingenious writer) that
the account of the warlike Amazons in Homer
and Herodotus is not fabulous, The women of
an Arabian tribe were warriors, and fought in
the armies of A.bubeker and Omar. That there
was
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (203)
was a kingdom of Amazons, is incredible ; /. e,
women who lived without men. But in countries
where the inhabitants lead a pafloral life, it is
not at all furpriling, that women, trained from
their infancy in the fame manner as men, fhould,
upon occaiion, fight like them. Penthelilea,
at the fiege of Troy, and Camillus, ■ the ally of
Turnus, were heroines early inilrutfled in the
vSt of arms, who took pleafure in martial ex-
crcifes. At the iiege of Damafcus, an Arabian
woman avenged the death of her hufband, flain
by her lide, and with an arrow, pierced the
commander of the city.*
TafTo, in his Jerufaleynme hiberata^ and Arioflo,
in his Orlando Furiofoy introduce female warri-
ors. The times of chivalry, prefent us with
more than one example of women, who diflin-
guifhed themfelves in the field of battle. To
us of modern times, fuch accounts feem incre-
dible ; efpecially fince the ufe of artillery and
fmall arms prevent the combatants from fhevv-
ing their agility and perfonal courage. But
even in modern times, there have been exam-
ples of this kind. The maid, under the ftrong
impulfe of a pallion, has difguifed her fex, and
accoutred as a fojdier, has fhared in the dangers
of war for the man Ihe loved.*
The Saracen heroes refemble thofe of Homer,
in the fpeeches they delivered at the head of
their
f See Richardfon's Efiay on the Manners of Eaftera Natipos.
(204) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.1V,
their armies, when about to engage in lingle
combat, or when making treaties of peace ; but
greatly fuperior to them in religious enthufiafm.
Convinced of the truth of the Alcoran, that it
was lawful to propagate their religion with the
fword; and that thofe who died m battle, were
im.mediately admitted to the joys of Mahomet's
paradife ; they bore down all oppofition, and
were every where victorious. Indeed, the fol-
dier, whofe mind is impreffed with religion, who
is perfuaded that the Deity approves, afllfts, and
if he falls, will make him happy, behaves nobly
in the day of battle. A ll:ranger to fear, he
polTefles a cool determined courage. We have
already mentioned fome inflances of the effecfl:,
which thisperfuafion,ad:ing upon the minds of
the Arabians, produced. The daughter of He-
raclius, was taken in Damafcus, by Kaled, the
Saracen general, and fent by him to her father
without ranfom. Being afked why he did fo?
he replied, " Becaufe 1 hope foon to take both
the daughter and father in Conflantinople.*' —
When Omar came to befiege Jerufalem, he
brought his provilion, with a bottle of w-ater,
and a wooden trencher, upon his camel. Hav-
ing feen fome of his army drelTed in lilks taken
from the enemy, he ordered them to be dragged
through the mud, with their faces towards the
earth, and their clothes to be torn in pieces.
To mention only one example more. When
the caliph Mohavia, who died in the iixtieth
year
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (^05)
year of the Hegira, was ready to expire, having
fecured the throne of the caliphs, till then elec-
tive, to his fon Yefud, he faid, " Great God, if
I have eflablifhed mv fon on the throne, be-
caufe I think him worthy of it j I befeech thee
to fupport him on it; but if he fliall fhew him-
felf unworthy to reign, 1 befeech tliee caft him
headlong from it."
Is it furprifing that every obftacle gave v/ay
to people who could fpeak and acft in this man-
ner ? no, it is agreeable to the nature of things.
Thefe infbances mark the charader of heroes. —
They were fanatics ; but fanatics who pofTelTed
magnanimity and greatnefs of foul. Let us
admire true greatnefs of foul in whomfoever it
appears, and whatever may be the caufe which
produces it. And, fince the manners and cuf-
toms of other nations ^nd former times, were
fo different from our own, let this convince us,
that the fcenery of this world is continually
Ihifting ; that we ought to be upon our guard
againft contracting a habit of judging of men
and things, by the cuftoms and manners of our
own time and country. The cuftoms and
manners of ancient times, were different from
thofe of the middle ages, and thofe of the mid-
dle ages diflimilar to thofe of the prefent time;
but the cuftoms and manners of either ancient
or modern times are refpedable, only as they
are founded in virtue, and have a tendency to
humanize
(2o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV;
humanize the heart. The rude manners of the
barbarian, when tindlured with virtue, claim
cilcem ; but poh'fhed manners, fuilied with
vice, excite deteliation.
That there are various orders of fupernatural
beings, is, and always has been, a popular doc-
trine in the eaft. Their peris refemble the
fairies of the Europeans, of whofe exifrence the
belief is not yet obliterated. Genii differ little
from the giants of the middle ages. They be-
lieved that there w^re beings, whom they fup-
pofed to be the caufe of happinefs or mifery to
man ; hence they wifhed to procure their favour,
and fome pretended to have this power. This-
belief gave rife to charms, to talifmans, and to
the whole armour of oiTenfive and defenfive en-
chantment. The Arabians and other eaftern
nations, believed the machinary of angels ; with
them every month was fuppofed to be under
the guardianihip of a particular angel ; nay,
that every day had a ruling angel ; and is not
the dodrine of being born under fuch a planet
fimilar to this ? *
Chivalry, or knight errantry, fo intimately
connedlcd with enchantment, was not unknowa
in
* Thoiigli tHe doctrine of apparitions, fo firmly believed
by the vulgar, may be a good deal owing to ignorance and-
Aiperllition ; yet as it may be traced from a natural perfuafion
that there is a communication between the vifible and invifiblc
worlds, fo we are apt to think, that philofophy and religion wll£
never be able wholly to eradicate it.
L£CT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (207)
in the eail. For the knights of hoftile armies
to challenge one another to fingle combat, was
common among the Tartars, the Perfians, and
ihe Arabians. They had a feftival not unlike
the ancient gallantry of Valantine's day in
Europe. Aftrology, divination, interpretation
of dreams, were with them fafnionable ftudies.
The marriage, chiefly of perfons of rank among
them, was attended with lingular fplendour and
ceremony.
Their attention to the fair fex feems to have
been cpndudled with fuch principles of fenfibi-
lity, as would hardly be expedied from tliat
fiercenefs of temper, for which they have betn
charaAerifed : yet the great lines in the manners
of .thofe people may in fome meafure account'
for it. They led a pafloral life ; and a paftoral
life is ever favourable to love. Many circum-
fiances, peculiar to their roving habits, would
frequently produce fuch lituations, as might
greatly heighten that elegant regard to the fex,
which difcinguiflics refined afiedtion from brutal
impulfe. Many tribes often' encamped together
on the fame plain ; the young men of one, fall
irv love with the damfels of another. In the
midft of their courtiliip, the heads of the tribes
order the tents to be flruck ; one goes to the
right, another to the left. The lovers are fepa-
rated, perhaps never more to meet, and thefc
reparations have often proved fatal. Dying for
love
f208) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV,
love is confidcred among us as a mere poetical
figure, but in eaftern countries it is fomerhing
more. Add to this, that the military ideas
"which prevailed in Arabia, feem alfo to have
been peculiarly calculated to promote a roman-
tic attention to the fair fex. The nations of the
eaft, particularly the Perlians, appear to have
been fond of mufic. And amidft ail the vices
and bad qualities of the Arabians, Perfians, and
Tartars, they have been ever diilinguifhed for
generofity and hofpitality. They have no word
to exprefs avarice fimply by itfelf ; and fo high
is their idea of the rights of hofpitality, that if
the murderer of their deareft friend had, even
by chance, eaten or drank under their roof, that
alone obliterated every former crime, and they
were bound, not only to forgive, but to pro ted:
him. *
Feudal Jyfl em, — The feudal fyflem, or military
government, which prevailed in Europe, it isr
probable, v/as originally from the eaft ; at leafb,
the government which has fubiifted in Tartary,
India, Perfia, and Arabia, from the moft early
accounts, down to the prefent time, can hardly
be defined by any other defcription. In read-
ing the ancient and modern hiftory of thofe
countries, we fee a great king to whom a num-
ber of princes pay homage.; every deviation
from this fyftem is merely temporary and acci-
dental
See Richardfon's Differ. &c.
Lect. IV. MODERN MiSTORY. (logj
dental. The caliphs were paramount fovereigns,
having under them feudatory princes. In Hin-
dofian, the Great Mogul is confidered by the
Subahs, Nabobs, and other fubordinate chiefs,
as lord paramount of the empire. Under the
Turkifh government, there are remarkable
traces of the feudal fyftem. Military liefs, un-
der different titles, are beftowed with exprefs
condition of maintaining bodies of men. And,
if it is true, that the florehoufe of nations^
whence millions of barbarians have ilTued into
thd more cultivated parts of the earth, appears
to have been Tartary : if Goths, Vifigoths, &c*
were originally the inhabitants of that immenfe
tradl, extending from 53°, to 130° » eaft longi-
tude, and from 39°, to 80°, north latitude,
then they only continued in the kingdoms of
Europe into which they emigrated, the cufloms,
manners, and mode of government they had
been ufed to in the countries from whence they
came.
The incidents of the feudal fyftem, the nature
of property, with the different kinds of tenures
and fervitude under a military government,
belong to the lawyer to treat of. Let it be our
talk to fhew its influence upon fociety.
'J he original intention of the feudal fyftem,
and its true fpirit, were national defence and
domeftic independence : and, whilft it conti-
nued in its purity, was an effedlual barrier to
O defpotifm^
(2IO) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
defpotifm, and tended to promote the freedom
of the fubjed. The power of the fovereigii
was checked by the power of the barons, as their
power was reprefTcd by that of their retainers
and valTals.
Women, in the rude and unculivated ftate of
fociety, were not of that importance they fbould
have been. When the chiefs of tribes coUedted
their retainers, and committed depredations on
their neighbours, the women could have no
property; for, as they had not (hared in the
toils and dangers of the expedition, no part of
the booty belonged to them.
But when the barbarians ceafed to rove from
place to place, and fettled themfelves in the
Roman provinces, from that moment, women
■were to improve in advantages : they became
polTeiTed of lands by portion or inheritance, and
thefe endowments raifed their value in the eyes
of the men. Women, whom nature has form-
ed to be proper companions to men, and who
are highly valuable upon account of their natural
attraftions, have in every ftage of fociety been
cfteemed, not in proportion to their merit, but
to the wealth they polfcfs.
' When the feudal fyftem took root in Europe,
wom.en, upon account of their riches and pro-
perty, became of more importance in fociety
than they had formerly been. 1 he .condudt of
the paen was ro them more diflant and relpect^
ful.
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. f2ii)
ful. The heart felt new fentiments of dignity
and meannefs. Men, having acquired per-
manent fettlements, became more domeflic.
Lefs employed abroad, the fair fex engroffed
more of their time and regard. They approach-
ed them with greater reverence, and courted
them with an affiduity more tender and anxious.
Women became fenfiblc of their influence, learn-
ed to be more vain, more gay, and more allur-
ing ; endeavoured to fet off their beauty by the
ornaments of drcfs, and grew Itudious to pleafc
and to conquer. They loft a good deal of
their former intrepidity, and began to affecft a
delicacy, even a weaknefs. Their education
was more attended to ; a finer fenfe of beauty
arofe; their employments were more feminine
than they had been ; they were more fecluded
from obfervation ; fentiment and feeling were
more indulged ; a greater referve accompanied
the commerce of the fexes ; a greater fenfe of
modefty operated, and the alarm at what was
contrary to it fooner taken. Gallantry, in all
its modes, and in all its charms, began to unfold
itfelf In a word, the feudal fyftem, the charac-
teriftics of which were arms, gallantry, and de-
votion, produced the inftitutions of chivalry.
Chriftianity did not abolifh thefe. To love God
and the ladies was the firft hf['on of chivalry, and
the knight, while he fought, was animated with
fentiments of religion and love. *
O 2 Chivalry »
• See Stuart on Society. Millar's Dlftmdllon of Ranks.
(212) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
Chivalry.-^Tht inftitutions of chivalry were
coeval with the feudal alTociation. The feudal
barons had ^ number of retainers ; they confti-
tuted their glory and ftrength. They fought
their battles, and confequently were entitled to
the honours of chivalry. Every perfon free born
might afpire to knighthood, and by attending
upon his lord, he learnt the knightly virtues,
simulation, the company of the ladies, of whom
he feledled one as the objedl of his love, enflam-
ed his paflion for war, infufed into his mind a
zeal for religion, and inftrucfled him in the art
of the mofl refpecftful gallantry.
The candidate for knighthood, prefented him-
felf in the church, confefTed his fins, and abfo-
lution was given him ; ht heard mafs, watched
his arms all night, placed his fword on the altar,
which was returned him by the prieil, w^ho gave
him his benediction. The facrament was ad-
miniftered to him, and having bathed, was dref-
fed in rich robes, and his fpurs and fword put
on. He then appeared before his chief, and
receiving a blov/ on the neck, was dubbed a
Jcnight. The whole was concluded with feaft-
ing and rejoicing.
The warrior promoted to the honour of
knighthood, was admitted to the table and con-
verfation of his fovereign. He was permitted to
wear gold, fur, and filk. He was diftinguiflied
in his order by the device on his arms, and the
peculiarities
Lect. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (2T3J
peculiarities of his blazonry. His privileges
were, in courts of law, and'when a prifoner of
War, not to receive unworthy treatment; /. e^
he was treated as a knight. His promife might
be relied on : it was thought difhonourable for
a knight to faliify his word. He appeared in
the field on horfeback attended with anefquire;
and if he had many knights in his train, he was
allowed a banner or ftandard. Great honours
were paid to his remains. When he died, his
funeral was folemn and ceremonious ; and his
fword, fhield, and other articles of his armour
and drefs, were objeds of refpedlful veneration.
• A knight v/as to confult and defend the glory
of the ftate ; but the approbation of his fair one
Simulated his valour. For her he fought and
conquered; to her he confecrated his trophies;
ihe kindled the fire of ambition in his breaft,
and his courage and fplendid feats of arms,
proclaimed her beauty and perfeflion.
The women felt their dominion. They boaft-
cd of the prowefs of their knights, and while
rivalfliip for beauty prevailed, each knight was
'defirous to maintain the honour, fuperior beauty,
and reputation of the damfel he made choice of,
againfl all competitors. The knight in com-
, pany of the ladies, acquired the graces of ex-
ternal behaviour, and improved his fenlibility
and tehdernefs. He lludied an elegance of
manners. Politenefs became a habitual virtue
O 3 which
(2 14) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IV.
which attended him to the field of battle, and
checked his paffions in the ardour of vidlory.
It was thus the knights conducfled themfelves in
the pure ages of chivalry, when honour was in-
feparable from virtue. In thofe days to utter a
falfehood, was an offence, an ignominy which
could not be wiped out. The guilty were
degraded from the honour of knighthood, a
punifhment to them more cruel than death. But
in the impure period of chivalry, when knights
w^re ftained with meannefs, they ftill laid claim
to probity of chara(5ler, and appealed to their
fwords to fupport their pretenfions.
Chivalry run its career in Europe, and then
fell into difufe. In the impure ftate of the
feudal fyftem, and towards its decline, knight-
hood became an engine of interefl in the hands
of a fuperior. Great fees were demanded of
thofe made knights, and if valTals negledled to
take this honour, their eftates were deftrained.
The knights of honour loft their conlideration ;
their number greatly increafed, and they be-
came venal, felling their fervices to the higheft
bidder. They fought for pecuniary rewards,
and not for honour. Chivalry was worn out.
The military and regular eftablifhments, which
the defedls of the feudal fyftem pointed out,
fuperfeded its ufes and advantages. Hence (as
an ingenious author obferves ; " It did not die,
as fome have landed, by the ridicule of the
author
LficT. IV. MODERN HISTORY. (215)
author of Don Quixot, but of old age, defpon*
dence and debility/* *
One dellrudiive confequence of the feudal
government was the fyftem of private war fo
univerfally prevalent in the middle ages. The
quarrels of nobles (to repeat what has been be-
fore obferved) were decided by the fword, not
by law. They met in the field, revenge anima-
ted them, they fought and bled ; but the quarrel
was not ended. Thefe feuds defcended from fa-
ther to fon, and were, for many generations, the
caufe of mutual depredation and flaughter. — "
From the opprefTions and cruelties of the feudal
fyftem, fprang the liberty we now enjoy. The
encroachments of the kings and nobles gave rife
to ftruggles, which, in Britain, paved the way to
the freedom of the fubjedl, and at length fecured
to Englifhmen their natural rights. Some traces
of that fyftem ftill remain, and by thefe the
manners of the prefent age arc in fome degree
influenced. The feudal alTociation is broken ;
but the nobles, fenfible of the importance of
their property and rank, would keep the lower
orders dependent on them. The common peo-
ple are not now the flaves of haughty barons as
formerly ; yet, being furrounded with the fplen-
dour of rank and wealth, they look up to them
with fubmiflion, reverence, and refpedt. Thefe
O 4 external
* Stuart on Soc. Memoires fur L'Ancienne Chevalrie par
M. de la Ciirne de Ste. Palaye.
(2i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
external appendages dazzle, and their depen-
dents 'are more flruck with them, than with
what is truly valuable.
I^ECTURE V.
The Cru/ades, — Co/ifequences of them t-^- Event s ^—^
Revolutions y Governments , — Legiflation^~^~
Manners y-— Religion ^ — Religious Orders,
Cnijades. — 'TpHE crufades, or holy wars, were
-*- an event, which ftrikingly dif-
played the charadler of the Europeans in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Superltition
and a wrong diredied zeal were the caufe of
thole cruel wars, and Chriflians, under the im-
pulfe of a religious frenzy, violated all laws,
human and divine. The hiftory of mankind,
before that period, prefents us with nothing
fimilar to it. Canaan, or the holy land, was
much refpedlcd in thofe days, as being the
country in which our blelfed Saviour was born,
preached, wrought miracles, and died for the
fins of the world. In the middle ages, Chrif-
tians frequently went from every part of Europe
in pilgrimage to Judea, to vilit the fepulchre of
Jefus Chrift, the place where he was born, and
.every other, rendered famous by his prefence
and
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (217)
and miracles ; or by thofe of his apoftles. To
go in pilgrimage to the holy land, once in their
life at leafl, was, they thought, the moft proper
means to conciliate the favour of God. The
Turks were then in polTeflion of Canaan, and
the Chriftians had hitherto beheld with indif-
ference, the religion of Mahomet planted in the
land of Chrift's nativity. This indifference was
changed in a moment into a moft ardent zeal,
— The fury of fanaticifm feizes the inhabi-
tants of Europe, they breathe revenge, and long
to difpolTefs the infidels of a country for which
they had fo great a refped. Peter the Hermit,
an obfcure and illiterate perfon, becomes the
foul of this furprifing revolution. This pilgrim
of Amiens, whofe zeal had prompted him to
vilit Jerufalem, had been mil- treated by the
Turks. Upon his return to Rome, Peter pa-
thetically defcribes the profanation of the holy
land, the indignities offered to pilgrims, and the
extortions they were obliged to fubmit to. Ur-
ban II. was then pope ; and he, like fome of his
predecefTors, anxioufly wifhed to devife means
to arm the Chriftian world againft the Maho-
metans. Finding Peter a proper perfon to fe-
cond his defigns, he fent him from province to
province to preach a crufade, to communicate
his zeal, and perfuade Chriftians to take up the
crofs againft the infidels. Peter, difagrecable
in his perfon, remarkable in his drefs, tra\^erfed
Italy,
(2 1 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
Italy, Germany, and France, with a rope for a
girdle, and a crucifix in his hand. He every
where exhorted the people to take up arms
againft the Mahometans, and march to the re-
lief of Jerufalem. His vehement geftures,
flrong voice, and lamentable ftory, produced a
wonderful effed. The contagion infers all, and
they loudly demand to be conduced into the
caft. All ranks are feized with the fame fran-
tic zeal; princes, barons, bifhops, monks, old
men, women and children. Urban II. over-
joyed to hear of his mifiionary's fuccefs, haftens
to improve it, and in a council aflembled at
Clermont, in Auvergne, propofes, under the
name of Crujadey a league to deliver the holy
city out of the hands of infidels. // is the will
of God I It is the will God! was the general
cry ; the expedition is agreed on with one con-
fent, and dignified with all the pomp of reli-
gion. The pope is chofen head of the enter-
prife ; and a crofs of red cloth is made the badge
of thofe who were willing to fight at the
diftance of a thouland leagues, with people
whom they fcarcely knew by name. The cru-
faders had a plenary indulgence granted them,
and the promife of heaven to thofe, who might
fall in the attempt to recover the holy land. The
nobles willingly ranged themfelves under the
banner of the crofs. Independent, reftlefs, fond
of diffipation and war, funk in debauchery, ig-
norant
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (219)
norant and fuperftitious, a penance which con-
lirted in plunder and blood, was fuited to their
tafte, and they were glad to purchafe heaven on
fuch eafy terms. Thofe not willing to pay their
debts, took up the crofs, to efcape from their
creditors, becaufe the crufaders were not to be
molefted upon any pretext whatever. Some in-
lifted with the hope of making their fortune, or
of acquiring fame by their exploits. But a
miftaken devotion, a love of novelty, and a de-
lire to fhare in fo very fmgular an enterprife,
induced the mofl part to become crufaders.
The popes beheld the crufaders as men devoted
to their interefl:, by whom they would be en-
abled to terrify kings, and make them bow be-
fore them, Thefe emigrations were not difa-
greeable to the princes of Europe, as by them
they got rid of many powerful and refllefs valTals
who continually braved their authority. The
clergy, who let flip no opportunity to increafe
their own influence, greatly favoured the cru-
fades. Nor was zeal the alone principal of this
frenzy ; many particular motives, in union with
the romantic fpirit of the age, contributed to
perfuade the Europeans to leave their country
to feek graves in Afia. Europe (as Anna Com-
nena expreffes itj feemed to be torn up by the
roots to overwhelm Afia.
Whatever the motives of the crufaders might.
be, their number foon amounted to four hundred
thoufand.
(220) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.V.
thoufand. Thefe were divided into three divi-
fions ; the firfl: divifion, about eighty thoufand
crufaders> moftly rabble, was conducted by
Peter the Hermit. In their march, they fell up-
on, and put to the fword, the Jews in Germa-
ny, and continuing their route through Hun-
gary and Greece, pillaged the Chriftians wher-
ever they came. Debauchery, and the attacks of
the inhabitants of the countries through which
they pafTed, thinned their number, fo that their
army, by the time they arrived at the ftraits of
Conftantinople, was reduced almofl to nothing.
The fecond divifion, marching with lefs con-
fufion than the firft, penetrated into Afia, was
fuccefsful in fome fkirmifhes, and finifhed its
career, by yielding to the arms of Solyman in
the plains of Nice.
The third divifion was condu6led by power-
ful princes, well verfed in the military art. —
Robert duke of Normandy; Hugh count of
Vermandois, brother to Philip king of France;
Baldwin earl of Flanders; Euftace de Bou-
logne ; Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of lower
Lorrain; Herpin, vifcount de Bourges; old
Raymond, count de Thouloufe; followed by-
many of the nobles of Europe, and warlike
troops, arrived in Greece, where they were re-
inforced by Bohemond, duke of Calabria, who
brought with him a body of thofe Normans, fo
f^m.ous for their noble exploits. Alexis Com-
nenusj
Lect.V. modern history. (221)
ftenus, emperor of Conflantinople, alarmed at
thefe emigrations, haflened to rid himfelf of
thofe dangerous and infolent guefls. He flat-
tered, carefled, and furnifhed them with boats
to tranfport them to the oppoiite fhore. Being
arrived in Alia, they proved fuperior to the
courage and adlivity of Solyman; pofTeiTed
themfelves of Bithynia, Cilicia, and Syria, from
which countries they expelled the Sultans who
reigned there. But misfortunes and fatigue had,
by this time, greatly diminished the army of the
crufaders. At lafl: they arrived before the walls
of Jerufalem, and began that liege, fo famous,
upon account of the many heroic adtions per-
formed by the beliegers and the befieged, hy
the great number of princes there prefent, and
by Taflb's immortal poem. The city is taken
by alTault, after a iiege of fix weeks, and the con-
querors, under the impulfe of a brutal fury,
butcher without pity, all who are not Chriflians.
The moft hidden retreats cannot conceal, from
their favage ferocity, trembling mothers and
their innocent child ren ,- their fwords fpare none,
and ftreams of blood. deluge the flreets. After
this horrible carnage, the Chriilians repair to
the fepulchre of Jefus Chrift, where falling
down upon their knees, they rend the air with
groans and lamentations.
Godfrey of Bouillon was elecTted king of Jeru-
falem ; Raymond was made count of EdefTa ;
and Antioch, the mofl confiderable conquefl of
the
(222) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
the crufaders, was ereded into a principality by
Bohemond. The other chiefs of the crufade,
returned to Europe. The Turks, foon after
their departure, infulted the walls of Jerufalem.
Godfrey valiantly repelled their attacks ; but his
reign, which continued only one year, did not
give him time to fecure the (lability of his in-
fant kingdom. In vain did Baldwin his fuccef-
for, implore alliilance from Europe ,- the cour-
age of the knights of St. John fupported him
upon a tottering throne. This monaftic order,
partly religious and partly military, gave birth
to others. The knights Templar and Teutonic,
were formed after the fame model, and adopted
the fame rules. The three orders, with that
fervour which animates neweflablifhments, per-
formed many heroic actions ; the Saracens fled
before them, they proteded the pilgrims, ex-
tended the boundaries of the Chriftians polTef-
fions in Alia, and ftrengthened the throne of
Jerufalem. But envy and difcord foon divided
them, hatred armed them again ft each other>
and confufion precipitated the holy city to the
brink of ruin. In this unhappy fituation, the
Chriftians of Afia folicited from Europe, a new
crufade. * Second
* The firft crufade happened in 1 095. Henry IV. being-
then emperor of Germany, Wilb'am Rufus, king of England,
Philip I. king of France, Alphonfo VI. king of Caflilc,
Peter king of Arragon, Henry count of Portugal, Malcolni
III. king of Scotland, Alexis Comnenus erop. C. P. Mo-R^-
hader caliph, Urban II. pope.
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (223)
Second Crujade, — Pope Eugene III. pitched
upon his old mafter, St. Bernard, as a fit perfon
to perfuade the weftern world once more to take
up the crofs. He could not have made choice
of a more proper inftrument. The people re-
verenced him as a faint of the firft order. From
his cell he gave refponfes, which in thofe days
were thought equal to oracles. He was the arbi-
ter of kings, the foul of councils, and turned the
minds of the people which way he pleafed. We
fay, Eugene III. fixed uponhim to colled: princes
and their fubje6ts under the banner of the crofs.
Bernard, by his fermons, kindled the fire of en-
thufiafm. — Louis VII. received the crofs from
his hands. Many of his nobles, three biihops,
and Eleanora his queen, received the badge of
the crofs wdth the fame ardour. From France,
Bernard goes to Germany, and perfuades the
emperor, Conrad III. to become a crufader. —
He declares that he has authority from God, to
promife them vidory. The fanie of his mira-
cles and predidlions, removing all doubt of
fuccefs, every one would Ihare in the expedi-
tion, fo that in many towns none were to be ^^txi
but women and children. Bernard was invited
to become chief of the crufade, but he wifely
declined an honour, which he knew would ex-
pofe him to ridicule. The fame caufes which
contributed to the ruin of the firft crufade, w ere
the deftrudion of the fecond. Conrad, after
having
(2H) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
having loft an army of eighty thoufand men,
returned to Europe almoft alone. Louis VII.
with a no lefs numerous army, was ftill more
unfortunate than Conrad. Difhonoured by his
wife, beaten by the Saracens, he brought back
to France, only fome of his courtiers. A thou-
fand ruined families proved the falfehood of St.
Bernard's predictions, and uttered loud com-
plaints againft him. To thefe he made no an-
fwer; but comparing himfelf to Mofes, faid,
he refembled that legiflator, who, though he
promifed to condudt the Ifraelites into a hap-
py land, faw the firft generation periih in the
defert.
nird Crufade, — Thefe unfortunate expedi-
tions brought no relief to the Chriftians of Alia,
who, more divided than ever, were in imminent
danger of being driven from Jerufalem. The
Turks were determined to difpofTefs the Chrif-
tians of the holy city. With Noradin at their
head, they began to put their defign in execu-
tion ; and Saladin, his fuccelTor, accompliihed
it. Saladin had, in a fhort time, conquer-
ed Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and- Mefopotamia.
Jn pofTefHon of thefe countries, he determined
upon the conqueft of Jerufalem, rent by the
violence of fadlion. Guy de Luiignan, then
king of Jerufalem, alTembled the Chriftians,
marched againft Saladin, who, having drawn
the Chriftian army into ^ narrow pafs, obliged
Guy
Lect. v. modern history. (225)
Guy and his troops to furrender prifoners of
war. From the field of battle he marched to
Jerufalem, which opened her gates to the con-
queror, and put an end to that little kingdom,
after it had exifted near a century.
The vi(5l:ories of the brave and generous
Salad in, filled Europe with alarm and trouble ;
and the news of Jerufalem being taken proved
fatal to Urban III. who died of grief. The
Chrifiian princes, eager to recover the holy
land, fufpended their j)articular quarrels, and
prepare a third crufade. Frederick Earbarofia,
one of the greateft emperors that ever reigned
in Germany, a wife politician, well acquaint-
ed with the art of war, and whofe arms had
been often fuccefsful, marched by land at the
head of a hundred and fifty thoufand warriors.
— Philip Auguflus, one of the greateft kings
France had feen fince the days of Charlemagne,
went by fea, followed by a well-appointed army.
Richard Coeur-de-Lion, king of England, the
hero of the crufade, marched at the head of the
Englifli nobility, and a chofen body of troops.
Frederick was obliged to fight the Greeks,
"who, afraid of the crufaders, .had m.ade an alli-
ance with Saladin. Fie opened a palTage into
Thrace, though oppofed by the emperor Ifaac An-
gelus, and twice defeated the fultan of Iconium;
but having bathed while hot, in the river Cyd-
nus, he dicd^ and his victories became of no
$ P confequence^
(2^6] MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
confequence. The arrival of Philip revived
the hopes of the crufaders. He defeated the
Saracens, took feveral towns, and laid liege to
Acre. Richard haftened to fecond his efforts -y
he had been neceflarily detained in Sicily, and
during his flay, had regulated the affairs of that
ifland. In his paffage to the Archipelago, a
florm and want of provisions obliged him to
touch at Cyprus. He requefted refrediments
foi his troops from Ifaac, king of that ifland,
who had the inhumanity to deny him. Richard,
provoked at his refufal, lands his troops, defeats
Ifaac, puts him and his family in irons, and
caufes himfelf to be crowned king of the whole
ifland. Having performed this achievement,
he continued his route to the holy land, where
he arrived, covered with glory. Philip, jealous
of Richard's fuperior talents for war, feigns
ficknefs and returns to France, having promifed
with an oath not to moleft his rival's territories
during his abfence. Richard, mafter of the
field of honour, difplayed the mofl: heroic cou-
rage, took the city Acre, defeated Saladin's
generals in many battles, engaged Saladin him-
felf, and had the honour to difarm him. In
the midfl of thefe fucceffes, he was informed,
that Philip Auguftus, in contempt of his oath,
had taken advantage of his abfence to feize part
of Normandy, and had even excited his brother
to rebel. This news induced him to conclude
a truce
LEct. V^ MODERN HISTORY. ^227)
^ truce with Saladin, by which the ChriftianiS
of Paleftine were to enjoy peace i but he was
obh'ged to allow the fultan to remain in pofTef-
fion of Jerufalem, and to give up the end of the
crufadei
Fourth Crufade, — Though the crufades had
hitherto been the caufe of the lofs of much
human blood, though they had ended unfortu-^
riately ; yet this did not cool the ardour of the
Chriftians, nor perfuade them to relinquifh
their rafh defign. The popes were too much
interefted to allow this epidemical madnefs to
fubfide. Innocent III alfembled another army
of cmfaders, compofed of French and Italians,
with Baldwin, earl of Flanders, at their head*
Being joined by the Venetians, they arrived
in the neighbourhood of Conflantinople, and
encamped without the walls. Divifion and
tumult reigned in the city. Ifaac Angelus had
jufl then loft his liberty and life by the treachery
of his brother Alexis. Ifaac's fon had a party %
and the crufaders offer him their dangerous
afliilance. The young Alexis, hated by the
Greeks, for having introduced the Latins, w^as
murdered by a fadion. Alexis Ducas, furna-
med Murtzulphus, one of his relations formed
a confpiracy againft him, put the father and {on
to death, and afTumed the purple. Then the
crufaders, under a pretence of avenging their
death, entered the city without reiiftance, put
P 2 the
t22S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
the inhabitants to the fv/ord, and abandoned
themfelves to every excefs of fury and rapine. —
Thus Conftantinople was pillaged, and its inha-
bitants flain by the Chriftians, who left Europe
with an intention to fight only with the enemies
of Chriftianity.*
Baldwin was made emperor of Conflanti-
nople ; a Venetian was chofen to fill the patri-
archal chair, and the other crufaders divided
the empire among them. Peloponnefus, the
ifland of Candia, and feveral- cities of Phrygia^
fell to the fliare of the Venetians. Some of the
imperial family of the Comneni, not difliearten-
ed by this wreck of the Greek empire, founded-
two fmall kingdoms, one at Nice in Bithynia^
and the other at Trebifond, between the fea and
mount Caucafus. The pope, who, by this, be-
came the head of the eaflern church, eafily
forgave the crufaders their negled: of going to
deliver Jerufalem from the Mahometans.
Fifih Crii/ade. — Chriftians did not always
alTume the badge of thecrofs to fight againft in-
fidels. The madnefs of bigotry, and a perfe-
euting fpirit, produced the fifth cl-ufade for the
deftrudlion
'* As a trait of the charailer of the French, it is obferv-ed,
that the crufaders of that nation danced with women in the
church, called St. Sophia, whilll one of the proftitutes, who
followed Baldwin's army, fang a fong fuitable to her pro-
fjsilion.
Voltaire,
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (229)
deftrudion of Chrillians, Oppodtion to er-
rors in do6i:rine, to the pride and ambition of
the clergy, had rendered many in the fouthern
provinces of France obnoxious to the church
of Rome. They refufed to acknowledge, as
minifters of the religion of the humble Jefus,
men who were deftitute of humility, meeknefs,
and felf-denial. Thefe witnefTes for the truth
were called (by a general name) Albigenfes. —
Innocent III. alarmed at their principles and
oppoiition to the clergy, determined to extir-
pate them. A crufade was preached againll:
them, and a formidable army raifed, the com-
mand of which was o-i ven to Simon de Montfort.
The pope, at the fame time, eflablifned the
court of inquilition, which, in the name of the
God of peace, has exercifed for feveral centuries
the moft fhocking cruelties. Of all the unjuft
tribunals eflablifhed upon earth, the inquifition
is the moft iniquitous. This tribunal allows
fufpicions to be good proof, the appearance of
a crime to be really a crime, fuilains the evi-
dence of the mofb infamous informer, and,
without mercy, commits thoufands of unfortu-
nate vidlims to the flames. The power of this
infernal tribunal is now much lefs than it once
was ; and we may indulge the hope, that the
time is not diftant, when it will be totally
annihilated. The innocent Albigenfes, pur-
fued by their enemies, fell by the fvvords of the
P 3 crufaders.
(230) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V,
crufaders, or expired in the midfi: of flames
kindled by the inquiiition. The brutal Montr
fort pillaged and deflroyed many cities, butch-
ered the inhabitants, while the priefts who at-
tended him, were the firfl: to fet fire to the towns
and villages. Raymond, count of Thouloufe,
fovereign of Languedoc, was excommunicated
for attempting to aflifl: his fubjeds; and, to
fave his life, obliged to humble himfelf before
a haughty legate, and fubmit to the mofl: igno-
minious penance. But all the cruelties Rome
could inflid:, did not wholly extirpate the Albi-
genfes ,• they continued till the reformation, and
became a part of the Proteftants.
Sixth Cru/ade.'—No fooner was the crufade
againft the Albigenfes finifhed, than Innocent
III. refumed the projedi: of delivering the holy
land. Andrew, king of Hungary, and John de
Brienne, titular kingof Jerufalem, accompanied
by Cardinal Julian, the pope's legate, marched
at the head of an army of crufaders. But, in-
Head of going to Palcfline, they direcfted their .
inarch to Egypt. Succefs at firft attended their
arms. The Saracens, often vanquifhed, were
obliged to betake themfelves to the mountains,
and leave the Chriftians malfers of the level
country. The two generals of the crufade,
before they would pufli their advantages any
farther, wifhed to take every proper precaution;
t>ut the legate, with the authority of a mailer,
took
Lect. v. modern history. (231)
took the command of the army upon himfelf,
obliged the generals to adl according to his
orders, and, fupported by the knights templar,
conduced the army between two branches of
the Nile- Thus hemmed in, the Saracens opened
the fluices, and inundated the Chriftian camp ;
and they, in fo dangerous a fituation, thought
them.felves happy to come to an agreement with
the fultan, who allowed them to return with
difgrace to Europe.
Seventh and laft Crufade, — Europe was heartily
tired of wearing the badge of the crcfs. The
people were almofl recovered from the epide-
mical difeafe of crufading. In the general
fermentation which difturbed Europe, princes
durft not leave their dominions. The popes,
violently irritated againft the emperors, .thought
no more of the holy land, Crufades feemed to
be at an end, when Louis IX. (commonly called
St. Louis} king of France, undertook the feventh
and lafc. This prince, a model for men and
kings, attacked with a fevere fit of ficknefs,
thought he heard a voice, which told him he
would recover, and that he muft undertake aa
expedition againft the infidels. He made a
vow to do fo, and immediately, upon his reco-
very, prepared for a crufade. His mother,
wife, and council, oppofed him all they could ;
but the circumftances of his kingdom, the in-
Sereft of his family, and the danger attending fo
P 4 ram.
(232) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V,
rafli an entcrprife, were not fiifficient to divert
him from his dcfign. He was told that a rafh vow
is not bmding, and that the firft duty of a king
is to confiiit the happinefs of his people. Ihis
falutary advice made no impreffion on Louis.
After three years preparation, he fet out, at-
tended by Margaret of Proven<?e, his wife, his
three brothers, and almolt -ill the knights of
France. Edward, fon of Henry III. king of
England, joined the crufade with a numerous
body of nobility. The army embarked at
Aguemortes, failed for Egypt, and landed near
Damietta, a Itrong city, at the mouth of the
Nile. The Mahometans, v/ho lined the fnore,
attempt, in vain, to hinder the Chriftians from
landing. Louis leaps into the fea, gains the
fhore, followed by his troops, draws them up
in ordev of battle, and puts the Saracens to
flight. The city of Damietta is taken by the
crufaders; the terrified infidels fly on every
lide, and the conqueff of Egypt feems almoft
certain. But thefe happy beginnings were fuc-
ceeded by misfortune and difgrace. Diflem-
pers, occafioned by the debauchery of the
crufiiders, want of provifions, and the heat of
the climate, diminifhed the army of Louis.
His brother. Count D'Artois, and the flower of
the ncbility were cut off; he himfeif, attacked
by the Saracens, was defeated, and taken pri-
foner with the greatcfl: part of his army. After
having
Lect.V. modern history. (233)
having been a month in chains, his conquerors,
out cf re^pe6^ for his virtues, fct him at liber-
ty, and concluded with him a truce for ten.
years. i
Thus ended the crufades,- undertaken for the
recovery of the holy land. Thefc expeditions
were the confequence of the religious fenti^
menrs and manners of the middle ages, and a
lading proof of the bad effedt of wrong prin-
ciples. The Chrifliians of Europe took no far-
ther concern in the affairs of their brethren in
the eafb; and the fettlements they had made
there, being deprived of affiftance, foon came
to nothing. *
The Latin empire, formed by the crufaders,
v/as of fmaii extent ; comprehending only Con-
flantinople, and a few leagues in the neighbour-
hood of that city. Baldwin, the firft king,
reigned fcarcely one year. Attacked by the
Bulgarians, he was defeated, taken prifoner,
and flayed alive. Henry, his brother and fuc-
ceiTor, though not fo unfortunate, had but a
fhort and troublefome reign. Peter de Cour-
tenay, fell into the hands of Theodore Angelus
Comnenus, who tortured him to death. Ro-
bert, his fon, could fcarcely defend the city,
and Michael r*aleologus, drove Baldwin II.
from
* The crufades comprehend a period of a hundred and
fev^i^ty-eight years, from 1 095, to 1273.
(234) MODERN HISTORY. Lpct, V,
from Conftantinople, and put an end to the
reign of the Latins.
The Chriftians in Palefline, were foon de-
prived of their poflefTions by the Turks. A
variety of caufes hadened their ruin ; thefe were
the continual quarrels of the military monks,
often attended with the lofs of lives ; the de-
bauchery of the Chrillians ; the hatred of the
Greeks, who would rather be fubjedl to the
Turks, than bear the Romifh yoke. At laft
the city Acre, the only place of ftrength the
crufaders were pofTefTed of, was inverted j and
being taken after an obftinate liege, and burnt
by the Mahometans, every veflige of the cru^
fades difappearcd.
Caufes of the Crufades, — The crufades were
undoubtedly an imprudent and mad enterprife,
and fo they mufb appear to us of the eighteenth
century ; but to thofe who lived in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, they appeared in a different
light. Men in the heat of pallion, engage in and
carry on an enterprife, the folly and injuftice of
which, upon fober refledion, they condem.n.
The tafle, manners, and prejudices of the middle
ages, induced the Europeans to engage in holy
wars, without ever confidering whether they
were juft and advantageous, or the contrary.
Many caufes operated toperfuade the Chriflians
to take up the crofs.
Pilgrimages to the holy land had been long in
ufe^
UcT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (235)
ufe, and confidered as the mod effed:ual means
of falvation. V/rong zeal for religion, and
want of charity, begot in the minds of Chrif-
tians, a hatred of the Mahometans. This hatred
was flrengthened by their enterprifes in Europe,
and their cruel treatment of the Afiatic Chrif-
tians. The holy land was in their polTefTion,
and the Chriftians thought, it would te doing
an acceptable fervice to God, to take it out of
the hands of infidels. In their opinion, Jefus
Chrift would not own them for his difciples,
unlcfs they paid their devotions in the country
where he was born, and prcflrated themfelves on
the ground where he was crucified and buried.
To a paflion for religion, was joined a paflion
for war. Commerce, manufadlures, and arts,
were in their infancy in Europe; the people
were without employment. In this iituation,
peace was difagreeable to them, and it gave them
pleafure to attend their princes in warlike ex-
peditions. The time of the crufades was the
cera of chivalry. Knights loved adventures, and
they were perfuaded that a war with the Maho-
metans of Afia, would prefent them with fuch
as they could not find in Europe. A thirft for
glory and wealth excited the brave to take up
the crofs ; and this thirfl, they hoped, would
be quenched in Afia. To fight at a diflance
from home had fomething romantic in it, which
fuited the talle of the Europeans of the middle
ages.
(236) MODERN HISTORY. Llct.V.
ages. Afia prefented the crufaders with the
moll: brilliant conquefls : they believed that
viclory would attend their ileps, and that they
would return to Europe loaded w^ith the trea-
fures of the eafi. If a thirfl for gold, carries
the Britifh, and other modern Europeans, to the
unhealthy fliores of Africa, to Hindoftan and
China ; if the Dutch, to have liberty to trade
with the Japanefe, trample upon the crofs ; is
it furprifmg that the anceilors of the fame na^
tions, with limilar views and expedations^
fhould have gone into Alia, wearing the badge
of the crofs?
The church of Rome was then all-powerful
in Europe. She authorifed Chriflians to take
up the crofs, and gave to all who did fo, an ex-
emption from what opprefTed them in Europe ;
now, to men funk in debt, in dread of confine-
ment in a prifon, expofed to the infults of ene-
mies, it would be thought a very great advan-
tage, to have their perfons and property fecurc
under the protection of the church.
To thefe motives » which, no dbubt, induced
the crufaders to take up arms, and march for
the recovery of the holy land, this one may be
added. In thofe dark ages, we may reafonably
fuppofe, there v/ere many guilty of wicked ac-
tions, which deferved punifliment, many pro-
fligate linnets, to whom the governors of the
c;hurch had prefcribed a fevere penance. The
pope
LzcT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (237)
pope had publiihed a plenary indulgence, or a
pardon for crimes, to all who would take up
thecrofs, how nunnerousor heinous foever they
might be. Thefe bad charaders found the ex-
piation of their crimes in fuch indulgence. It
perfedlly fuitcd their inclinations, as it made
what they loved nioft, namely, war, plunder,
conqued, a duty. If they fucceeded in their
undertaking, riches in abundance would enable
them to live happily in this world ; and if they
died, they thought themfelves fure of the crown
of martyrdom in the next. Chivalry, fuper-
ftitious devotion, uncivilized manners, turbu-
lent paflions, deeply rooted prejudices, vicious
habits, thefe concurred to produce the fame
effedl.
Confe queue es cf the Cmjades, — The crufades
deprived the kingdoms of Europe of many of
their inhabitants. This was hurtful to popula-
tion, and the evil w^ould be felt for a long time.
Europe alfo fuffered, for want of the fpecie the
crufaders carried with them. The feudal lords
fold or mortgaged their lands, to defray the
cxpence of their expedition, thinking that the
wealth of Alia would amply indemnify them ;
and that upon their return, they would be. able x.o
redeem their lands, or purchafe by the fvvord, a
larger extent of territory in Alia, than they
polleiledin Europe. Thofc who 'engaged in
the
(5j8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. t^
the crufades, were moftly the turbulent and un-
ruly, whofe chief delight was war and plunder ;
the profligate and debauched, wl^uofe fouls were
ftained with the cOmmiflion of many crimes ;
thofe in debt, who had no viiible means of pay-
ing what they owed; the poor nobility, who
had not wherewith to fupport their rank ; peo-
ple called gentlemen, who fubfiiled by the
charity of the monafteries, or depended for a
precarious fubfiftance upon the feudal barons.
Thofe of the loweft rank in fociety, who, for
want of agriculture, manufadures, trade, and
commerce to employ them, lived in idlenefs and
poverty. Europe was the better to want thefc,
as they father hurt than promoted the welfare
of fociety.
The church was a gainer by thefe emigrations.
She purchafed lands from the crufaders greatly
below the value ; and by increaiing her pro-
perty, increafed her power. The crufades, by
carrying into Afia, the great feudal barons^
where they died, contributed to increafe the
power of the princes of Europe. Afraid of a
diminution of their own power, they had hither-
to checked the incroachments of the crown j
but having gone to fight in a foreign land,
kings feized the opportunity to extend and fe-
cure their authority. Nay, fociety in general
was a gainer*; fince the crufades> by removing
ont
LfecT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (239)
out of the way, thofe members who were
Continually raiiing difturbances, and commit-
ting ad:s of cruelty, enabled the well-difpofed,
who remained, to cultivate the arts^of peace, to
promote civilization, and refinement of man-
ners. Some of thofe who returned to Europe,
brought from the eaft, a tafle for the arts and
fciences. The finG buildings they had fecn at
Conflantinople, and in Afia, executed in the
Grecian tade, furnifhed them with the idea of
introducing the imitation of them into the wefl:,
where the Gothic manner of building prevailed;
an archited:ure without proportion, order, or
beauty, in which ftrength, and permanency
were only aimed at by the builder. The cru-
faders brought from the eafl fome of the writ-
ings of the ancients ; this was favourable to
learning in thofe dark ages, as it gave the Euro-
peans a tafte for the finifhed compoiitions of the
Greeks, and raifed in them a defire to become
acquainted with thofe mafters of poetry, hiftory,
and eloquence. The crufades were alfo favour-
able to commerce, as an intercourfe was chen
opened between the call and wefl, which has
continued ever fmce. The European merch-
ants attended the armies of the crufaders, fold
them the commodities of Europe and Afia,
brought Afiatic commodities into Europe, and,
from the gain they made, found it would be
greatly
(240) MODERN HISTORY. Lect: Y.
greatly to their advantage to carry on a trade
with the nations of Afia. f
Dviring the period of the crufades, fome
eflablirnments, advantageous, both to princes
and the people, were formed in Europe ; thefe
were corporations and municipal governments.
They were advantageous to princes, by weaken-
ing the power of overgrown vafTals, who dQ{-
pifed the royal authority ; they were advanta-
b;cous to the people in the liberty they obtained^
"\\ hich foftened oppreffion. Thefe corporations
and municipal governments, were affociations
of citizens for mutual defence. They had the
privilege of chuiing their own magiftrates, of
governing themfelves, and taking up arms, on
condition, that they furnifhed the fovereign in
time of war v/ith a certain number of men, and
paying him fome quit-rents, as an acknow-
ledgement of his fuperiority over them. 1 hefe
privileges were purchafed with money, and the
crufades helped to promote their eftablifliment.
For the feudal lords, who engaged in the holy
War, having need of money, fold the above-
mentioned privileges to the inhabitants of cer-
tain
■f From the crufades was derived the invention of coats of
arms, or armorial bearings. By thefe the chiefs of the cru-
fade were diflinguiflied under heavy iron armour, which
entirely covered their bodies ; from hence fprang heraldry,
which has been attended to and cultivated as a fcience, when
iludies much more valuable were entirely negledled.
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (^41)
tain cities within their jiirifdidlioii. The clergy-
Were much againft thefe immunities being be-*
flowed upon the lower ranks of fociety, whom
they wanted to keep in a flate of flavery. •
Strange ! that the minifters of the Chriflian re-
ligion fhould have been fo averfe to the civil
and religious rights of mankind. Liberty is the
parent of happinefs. In barbarous times pride
and fuperilition foftered idlenefs and flavery. —
Arts and manufacflv^res, nay commerce, were
held difgraceful in the age of feudal feverity ;
but when liberty flept forth, and men began to
know and claim their natural rights, new fenti-
ments infpired new ideas, the foul exerted cou-
rage, and full play was given to the exercife of
her faculties.
The cru fades were unfortunate, and this was
owing to thofe who engaged in them. They
were filled with fuperftitious fervour, they were
bent on conquefl ; but their views clafhing with
each other, and being prone to ads of cruelty,
prevented them from having that fuccefs which
might have been expedled. Robbery and blood-
fhed marked their footfteps in the countries
through which they marched; their barbarous
paffions never fubfided ; they Were drenched in
blood every time they went in the fervour of
devotion, to worihip at the holy fepulchre. — >
Had the crufaders behaved themfelves hke fol-
diers, who knew how to make war, had they
(242) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. Y,
condudled their affairs with (kill and pru-
dence, it is probable that Afia might have beea
conquered ; but acting in the manner they did,
their enterprifes ferved only to depopulal;e
Europe, to flrengthen the hands of the Roman
pontiffs, and to bring ruin upon themfelves. —
Becaufe fuperftition and barbarity were tne
fprings which fet them in motion, and becaufe
they were deftitute of real religion, virtue, and
prudence.
Events in the twelfth & thirteenth Centuries. — In
the period under review, the event next in im-
portance to the crufades, is the unchriftian and
fanguinary quarrels of the popes and German
emperors. The emperors wifhed to keep pof-
fefHon of Italy, and the right of prefenting to
church benefices, both of which were very dif-
agreeable to the popes, who made ufe of every
means in their power to prevent them. Gre-
gory VII. the moft haughty prielt that ever fat
in the papal chair, determined to exalt his power
above all prmces ; and as the emperors of Ger-
many were the moft likely to oppofe him, he
Urained every nerve to bring them to fubmit to
the holy fee. Hence, the ftruggles between
Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and this pope,
in which the latter, by the power of fuperftition
and intrigue, was an overmatch for the former.
Gregory died» but his fuccelfors followed his
plan, and harraffed Henry wuth fuch unrelenting
feveritya
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (243)
ftverity, that, that hero, who had fo ftrongly
oppofed the encroachrnents of Rome, over-
whelmed with misfortunes, was obliged to take
refuge in Liege, where his unnatural fon would
fcarce allow him any fupport while living, and
refufed him Chriflian burial when dead, becaufe
he died under the pope's anathema.
The quarrel ftill continued during the reigns
of feveral emperors and popes, whofe names are
mentioned in the hiflories of thofe times. It
was then that the guelphs and gihelins, or the
partizans of the emperors and popes, were in a
ftate of perpetual hoflility with each other, and
fpread the horrors of civil war from the coafts
ot Africa, to the fliores of the Baltic. Henry V.
Conrad III. duke of Suabia, Frederick 1. his
nephew, Henry VI. and Frederick II. flood
forth in defence of their rights, which the popes
would have wrefted from them. Innocent IV.
the quondafjz friend of Frederick II. mounted
the papal chair, and from that moment became
his mofl implacable enemy. He excommuni-
cated him, and did all he could to ftir up Ger-
many and Italy to rebellion againft the emperor;
but Frederick obliged him to take refuge in.
France. There Innocent IV. afTembled the
famous council of Lyons, which, after a mock
trial, pronounced Frederick's depolition, and
publifhed a crufade againft him. When Fre-
derick was informed of this, (being then at Tu-
Qj2 (rin
(244) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. T.
rin) taking the imperial crown in his hand ;.
« The pope, and council, (fays he) have not yet
1!aken this from me ; and before I am deprived
of it', much human blood fhall be fpilt.*' He
immediately wrote to the princes of Germany ^^
and of the reft of Europe, to convince them
that the confequences of the pope's conducT:,.
would be detrimental to them all ; he fent his
fon Conrad into Germany, and marched himfelf
to the fouth of Italy. Frederick was obHgedy
not only to defend himfelf againft the public
attacks of his enemies, but to be upon his guard
againft traitors and aftaffins, who were privately
hired to take away his life. However, grief or
poifon deprived him of life, and he left the
empire, at his death, in as great confufion, as it
had been in at his birth. He was, (even by
the confeflion of his enemies) the moft enlight- .
ened prince of the age, of great courage and
generofity, prudent, magnificent, and learned^
the friend and protedor of the arts.
Innocent IV. who did all he could to ruin the
family of Suabia, returned in hafte to Italy ,in-
vited William of Holland to ufurp the imperial
crown, and fent his troops into Sicily. Wil- '
liam loft his life in a battle with the Frifians.
Conrad, the worthy fon of Frederick, did, by
his courage, for fomctime prevent the downfal of
his family ; but poifon foon put an end to his
life and triumphs, leaving a fon almoft in his
cradle.
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (245)
cradle. Innocent longed to extinguiih thac
race; but death put an end to his days and
crimes. Alexander IV. and after him Urban
IV. offered young Conrad in's dominions to fe-
veral princes. At laft Charles of Anjou, bro^
ther to Louis IX. accepted them, and made a
rapid conqueft of the kingdoms of Naples and
Sicily. Conrad was taken prifoner, and he, with
his friend the duke of Auftria, lofl their lives
by the hands of the public executioner. Thus
periihed the illuHrious houfe of Suabia.
The confulion of anarchy prevailed in Ger-
many and Italy. Many emperors appeared at
the fame time. Richard, brother to the king
of England, and Alphonfo of Caflile, were
chofen emperors by different parties, but en-
joyed only a vain title. The ravages of war
continued, the country was laid wafte, and the
cities burnt with fire. Fatigued with thefe ca-
lamities, the elecftors united tochufe an emperor,
and without one difTenting voice, their choice
fell upon Rodolph, count of Hapfburgh.
England, — England aclied a confpicuous part
during the twelfth and thirteenth cehturies.
Henry I. who deprived his elder brother Robert
of the crown of England, and then of the duchy
of Normandy, difplayed talents which fhewed
him to be one of the greatefl kings of the age.
A valfal of the king of France, he endeavoured
tQ weaken him as much as poiTible ; and Louis,
0.3 i»
(246) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
in revenge, proteded the fon of the unfortunate
Robert, and ftirred up the Normans to rebel.
Befides, the clergy, with Anfelnn, archbiihop
of Canterbury, at their head, oppofed Henry
in the right of invefliture, and the pope threat-
ened to excommunicate him. Surrounded
wiih difficulties, Henry by his prudence and
courage, • boldly faced all his enemies. He
came to an agreement with the pope, without
relmquifhing his rights, or demeaning his dig-.
nity i quelled the rebels ; beat Louis the Fat ;
and engaged the emperor to enter France with
an arrhy. Succefsful in all his enterprifes,
Henry might have flattered himfelf with the
enjoyment of happinefs;' but a lliipwreck, in
which his two hopeful fons, one of his daugh-
ters, ami feveral of the Englifh nobility, perifh-
cd, overwhelmed him at once with grief and
forrow. However, his adiive genius did not
lea e him; he baffled the efforts of Louis and
Robert's fon i and, by marrying his daughter
Matilda, the emperor's widow, to Geoffery
Plantag- net, the heir of Maine and Anjou,
fecured ihefe two provinces to his fuccclTors.
After his death, Stephen, who became king
of England, in prejudice of Matilda's right,
Ihewed himfelf worthy of a crown. After him
the family of Plantagenet mounted the throne.
Henry IL the fon of Matilda and Geofrery,
already duke of Noniiandy, Anjou, and Maine,
, polief-
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (247}
pofleflbr of Guienne and Poitou, in right of his
wife Eleonora, whom Louis the Youno- had
divorced, became, by the union of England
with his other eftates, one of the mofl powerful
princes of Europe. His wars with France,
attended with no great lofs to either lide ; the
conqueft of Ireland by Strongbow and others j
his quarrel with Thomas Becket, the haughty
archbifhop of Canterbury, whom Henry had
raifed from the duft to an eminent rank, and
who, in return, difturbed the reign of his bene-
facftor ; the confequences of the death of that
prelate ; the rebellion of his fons, the perfidy
of his wife Eleonora; thefe, 1 fay, were the
events of the ftormy reign of the unfortunate
Henry Plantagenet, which broke his heart, and
hurried him to his grave.
Richard I. fucceeded his father Henry II.
Richard had the qualities of a hero, and was
fond of glory acquired by military exploits;
but it is not fo certain that he poflelTed thofe
qualities which make a good king. His thirfl
for glory fent him a crufading to the holy land,
where he performed the moft heroic adtions. —
Philip of France, whofe luftre was eclipfed by
Richard, returned in a pet to Europe, and, con-
trary to his oath, attacked his d^miinions. —
Irritated at Philip's perfidious condud, Richard
was obliged to leave the field of laurels, and
return to puni(h him. Delivered from cap-
QL.4- tivity
(24S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
tivity in Germany, he found in France an
unnatural brother taking part with his encjny.
He obliged his brother John to return to his
duty, forgave him, and carried on war with
Philip, without materially affcding the domi-
nions of either king. The death of Richard,
•who w^as flaih by a knight at the fiegc of Cha-
lons, freed Philip from a formidable rival. f
Arthur, duke of Bretagne, difputed the crown
of England with John his uncle ; but the for-
tune of war being on the fide of the latter, he
feized upon Bretagne, put Arthur in irons, and
murdered him with his own hand. Arthur's
mother prefented a petition to the French houfe
of peers, figned by the barons of that duchy.
• The king of England was fummoned to
appear as a vaffal of France, before his peers ;
and upon his refufal, was fentenccd to lofe all
that he pofTeiTed upon the continent. Philip
made
-j- Some woollen broad-clothes were manufactured in Eng-
land, in the reign of |lichard. It is pleafing to trace tlic
progrefs of liberty in Britain ; an inftance of which we have
in the oppofition the inhabitants of London, headed by
one William Fitzolborn, made to an opprefPive tax impofcd by
Richard, which fell wholly on the poor. Fitzofborn was a
brave man ; but being defeated, took refuge in a church,
from whence he was dragged, and put to death with feveral
who had jpined him. Thefe may be confidered as the firll
facrifice to that love of liberty, and ftrong defire to prefervc
the unalienable rights of man, which have always adluated
?he body of the Enghfh nation.
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (249)
made haile to reap the fmits of his vaiEil*s
crime, by depriving him of Normandy, Poitou,
Maine, Anjou, and Tourraine ; only Guienne
remained to the m.ifguided and impious John,
vho, by his unjuft exadlions, mifgovernment,
and contempt of religion, ilirred up againll:
him, the nobihty, clergy, and common peoDle.
Moreover, he embroiled himfelf with the pope.
Innocent III. \^ho declared the throne vacant,
forbade his fubjecis to obey him, and gave his
kingdom to Philip Auguftus, who readily ac-
cepted the gift. The revolt of the Welch, the
murmurs of the people, the confpiracy of the ba-
rons, and feditious cries of the clergy, united
againft John, and drove him to defpair. In this
crifis. Innocent III. ever attentive to his ov^^n in-
terefts, propofed to John to become a vallal of the
holy fee, and declare his kingdom feudatory of
Rome. John fubmitted, delivered his crown to
the legate, and received it five days after, at the
fame time promifmg that he would hold it of
the pope. By this meanncfs, John prefcrved his
dominions ; and to be revenged of Philip, form-
ed a powerful league againft him. England,
Germiany, and the Low Countries, immediately
took up arms againft France. Ferrand, earl of
Flanders, Euftace de Boulogne, and many other
lords, all vaftals of Philip, joined the emperor
OrhoIV. To that the kingdom of France appear-
jgd to be in imminent danger from fo powerful
a con-
(250) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
a confederacy. But Philip, by employing his
great abilities, made a noble (land agamft all his
enemies. He fent his fon into Anjou to oppofe
king John, and he him felf marched into Flan-
ders againft Otho, whom he met at Bouvines.
There was fought that famous battle, in which
Philip difplayed all the talents of a great captain,
and defeated an army ten times more numerous
than his own : this vidlory broke the league. —
Otho returned w ith difgrace to his own domini-
ons. Flanders was conquered, his vaflals humb-
led, John thought himfelf happy to obtain a
truce, and Philip was covered with glory.
In the mean time John, who came over to
England, found nothing there but hatred and
contempt. The barons rebelled, took up arms,
loudly demanded the reftitution of thofe privi-
leges the nation had enjoyed under the Saxon
kings, and obliged him to grant the Great Char-
ter of the liberties of England. In granting to
his fubjedls, by this charter, their natural rights,
John thought his dignity degraded, never con-
fidering that he w^as guilty of a real meannefs in
fubmittingtothepopeof Rome. He complained
heavily of the atfront put upon him by the grant
of Magna Charla^ and requeited that the pope,
his new fovereign, would redrefs his wrongs.
Innocent III. excommunicated the barons, and
John, with the afliflance of a body of Braban-
fons, carried fire and fword through the land,
leavinccj
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (251)
leaving, wherever he came, marks of his rage and
cruelty. In this extremity, the barons fearing
the total lofs of liberty, life, and property, had
recourfe to a defperate remedy ; they invited
into England, Louis, the fon and heir of Philip.
The French prince made hafte to take polTelTion
of Britain ; but the death of John, changed the
flate of aifairs. The nation, though it hated the
father becaufe of his crimes, would not puniih
his innocent fon. All turned in a very fhort
time in favour of the lawful heir, and Louis re-
quefted permiUion to return home.
England has often felt llrange revolutions.
As long as the great Pembroke governed m the
name of Henry ill. a minor, tranquillity pre-
vailed in the church and ftate; but after his
death, there was a great change, and divifions
increafed more than ever. The minifters of
Henry committed the moft flagrant ads of in-
juftice, this oflfended the nation, and the king,
by w^ay of atonement, punifhed them ; but def-
titute of talents for government, he entrufled
his power with an ambitious wife, who defolated
the nation by her rapines, and by her imperious
condud:, ftirred up the nobles to rebel. His fub-
jecls took up arms, complaining of the violation
of the Great Charter ; the famous Simon iMont-
fort» earl of Leicefter, put himfelf at their nead,
and civil v/ar threw the whole kingdom into a
flame. Henry was macie prifoner with all his
family.
(252) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
family. Leicefter governed in the king*s name,
and by his reformation of the kingdom, pro-
moted private and public happinefs. However,
Henry's fon having by an artful ftratagem, made
his efcape from prifon, gave battle to the earl,
and put an end to his power and life. Edward
fet his father at liberty, reinflated him in his
authority, alTifled him m the affairs of govern-
ment, and enabled him to fpend the remainder
of his days in an undifturbed repofe.
France. — Louis VI . pofTeiTed wifdom to plan,
with courage and adivity to execute his deiigns.
He fpent his life in oppoling his vafFals, gave
the firft blow to feudal anarchy, increafed the
liberty of the common people, formed muni-
cipal governments, and laid the foundation of
the power of his fuccelfors. The Abbe Suger,
a great ilatefman, feconded his views, fupported
them after his death, and fupplied the incapa-
city of Louis VII. He made himfelf odious by
his cruelties in Champ*agne, and the malTacrc
of Vitri, at which humanity fhudders, A prey
to violent remorfe, he believed the only way to
expiate his crimes would be to join the crufadc
for the recovery of the holy land. In Paleflinc
he behaved inglorioufly, from whence he re-
turned with difgrace; and by the divorce of an
unfaithful wife, who'brought a fixth part of his
dominions to Henry Pkntagenet, he gave a
terrible
Lect. v. modern history. (253)
terrible blow to France. With his Ton Philip
Auguflus the reader is already acquainted.
Louis VIII. the fon and ruccelTor of Philip,
preferved to France the fuperiority his father
had obtained ; happy would it have been for
himfelf and his people, had he not given way
to blind zeal, which induced him to take up
arms againft the innocent Albigenfes. After
his death, Blanche of Callile wifely governed
during the minority of Louis IX. This prince
began his reign, by beating the Englifh at
Taillebourg, and by a difplay of great vir-
tues.- He kept his vaflals within the bounds
of duty, checked the ufurpations of the clergy,
put a ftop to the haralTments of the great, gave
vigour to the laws, formed a police, eftablifh-
cd courts of juftice to proted: the innocent and
punifh the guilty ; that wife legiflation, which
every where prevailed through his extenlive
dominions, rendered him the delight of hi&
fubjeds and the oracle of kings. Such were
the traits of the reign of this great king. Blame-
able only in this, that his virtues were of a fuper-
flitiou5 complexion, and perfuaded him to take-
up the crofs to his own great lofs and that of ther
nation.
Scotland. — Scotland in this period was not of
much weight in the fcale of European nations.
Confined to the northern parts of Britain; hav-
ing no pofTeflions on the Continent, the Scots
concerned
f254) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
concerned themfelves very little with foreign
affairs, nor did they take a part in the troubles
which agitated Europe, any farther, than from
their connediion with the French, to make now
and then an excurfion into England in their
favour, when the two nations were at war.
The turbulent and refradory difpofition of the
Scotch feudal lords, the unfriendly terms upon
which they lived with the Englilh, cut out for
the kings of Scotland fufficient work at home.
The fpirit of the times would no doubt induce
fome of the Scotch to engage in the crufades ;
but as no perfon of note is mentioned (though
there might be fome obfcure adventurers) they
either could not afford the expence of fuch an
expedition ; or, what is more probable, fuper-
flition had not power to perfuade them to engage
in that mad enterprife.
Malcolm III. (nicknamed Canmore*} thefon
of Duncan, whom Macbeth murdered, was con-
temporary with William the Conqueror. His
wife was Margaret, the filler of Edgar Atheling.
He is called by way of eminence, the Legiflator •
of Scotland. Indeed, he feems to have been a
magnanimous and wife prince ; one who had
courage to face his enemies in the field, and
knew how to govern and dired: the affairs of his
kingdom. It is faid he introduced the feudal
fyflem into Scotland. It is very probable that
thi^
* /'. e. Greathead,
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. ^255)
this fy ftcm prevailed in Scotland prior to his
time; but Malcolm might make fome altera-
tions and improvements in it. He and one of
his fons were treacheroufly flain ; but when, or
where, is not certainly known,
David, the Ton (though not the immediate
fuccefTor) of Malcolm, is the next king of
Scotland worthy of notice. In whatever point
of view we examine his charader and condud:,
we difcover qualities which made him equal, if
not fuperior, to any prince of the age. He
ftood up for the rights of his niece Matilda, and,
in the competition between her and Stephen of
Blois, for the crown of England, conducted
himfelf with fteadinefs and moderation towards
both. To him Henry II. was much indebted,
as by his means he afcended the Englifh throne.
He was too liberal to churchmen, and by build-
ing abbeys and monaflcries, increafed fuperfti-
tion and idlenefs : but this was the tafle of
the times. It is faid, that by the afiiHance of
learned men, whom he invited from all parts,
he compofed a code of laws for the better go-
vernment of his kingdom. After his death,
and the fuccellion of feveral kings, the crown
of Scotland came to Alexander III. who, dying
without ilTue, the right of fucceflion was long dif-
puted between Baliol and Bruce, both grand fons,
by their mothers, of David, earl of Huntingdon,
brother to Malcom IV. This difpute was the
caufc
(256) MODERN HISTORY. Ucr. V.
caufe of long and fore troubles to the inhabitants
of Scotland*
Spain, PortugaL — During the period under
review, the Chriftian kings of Spain were al-
mofl: all heroes. Sancho Ramire died glori-
oufly in the field of battle, after having greatly-
enlarged the kingdom of Arragon ; and his fon
Peter I. joined the little province ofHuefcato
his dominions. Alphonfo, his fuccellbr, ren-
dered himfelf famous by his bold enterprifes,
heroic anions, and continued fuccefs.
The death of the celebrated Roderick, fur-
named the Cid, fufpended for a little the fuccefs
of the Chriftians of Caftile. In the reign of
Alphonfo VI. the king of Morocco invaded
Spain with a powerful army, and vanquifhed
him in the battle of Velcz, in which he loft his
only fon. However the adlive genius of Al-
phonfo enabled him to repair his lolTes, and
towards the end of his reign, he obtained new
triumphs over the Moors. After his deaths
Caftile and Arragon were for fome time united.
Henry of Burgundy, who fucceeded Alphonfo
Vll. being dead, the regency was entruftcd with
the countefs Therefa, who, giving herfelf up to
the indulgence of pleafure, left the government in
the hands of contemptible favourites. The na-
tion murmured, and young Alphonfo attempt-
ed to take the government from his mother.
Offended at her fon, fhe, contrary to mater-
pal
Lect. v. modern history. f257)
hal affcd:ion, invited her nephew, the king of
Caflile, to feize upon Portugal* He accepted
llierefa's invitation; but the young prince
marched againft him, defeated him, and they
were afterwards reconciled by the; mediation of
the Arragonians. Then the three Alphonfoes
joined their forces againfl: the Moors, and at-
tacked them on all fides. But ttiQ death of
Alphonfo the Fighter, who was (lain in battle,
favcd the Moors, and created trouble to the
Chriftians. He, by a whimfical will, bequeath-
ed his dominions to the knights Templar, who
came to take polTeflion of them ; but Alphonfo
of Caftile oppofed them, as having the befl: title
in right of his mother. Then Navarre bellow-
cd her crow^n upon Don Garcia, of the race of
her anicent kings, and Arragon called Ramire
from the cloifter. This monk foon incurred the
hatred and contempt of his fubjed:s. They
obliged him to abdicate the throne, and chofe
in his place Raymond his fon-in-Iaw, count of
Barcelona, and Montpellier, and fovereign of
a part of Proven5e.
Vidory and conquefl attended Alphonfo of
Portugal. The concjueror, in one day, of fi^'e
Mooriih kings, his foldiers proclaimed him
king, and the pope confirmed his title, not^
withftanding the oppolition of Caftile. He
afterwards took the city, Lifbon, and made it
the capital of his kingdom. ,
t R In
(25S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
In Caflile, Alphonfo IX. the fuccelTor of
Sancho, whofe reign is not worthy of notice,
won the famous battle of Murandal, in which,
(according to the Spaniih hifloriansj the Moors
were totally defeated, leaving two hundred
thoufand dead upon the field Alphonfo X.
(though not the immediate fuccefTor of Alphon-
fo IX.) called the Wife, was a fkilful aftrono-
jner. He (it is faid) found fault with God in
the government of the world ; thought he could
inftrud his creator how to govern it better,
whilfl: at the fame time he wanted wifdom for
the right government of his own kingdom. —
To him an offer of the imperial crown was-
made, at the very moment his fubjecls intended
to depofe him.
In Arragon, Berenger procured the eftecm
and love of his fubjecfts ; Peter II. was killed at
Muret, in defence of his friend the Count dc
Thouloufe, perfecuted by the crufaders ; and
James L furnamed the Warrior, made himfelf
illuftrious by the conqueft of Minorca, Majorca,
Jvica, and the fertile kingdom of Valencia.
Sancho I. who fucceeded his father Alphonfo^
the firft king of Portugal, triumphed over the
Moors, built cities, equipped fleets, and increafed
population. — Alphonfo II. enlarged the boun-
daries of his kingdom. The incapacity of
Sancho II. loft him the throne, to whom his
brother Alphonfo J II. fucceeded, who con-
ciliated
LitcT. V. MODERN HISTORY. (259J
ciliated the afFedlions of the nation, by his fuc-
cefs in war, and by his wife government. The
Moors, in fpite of all their eiforts, were every
day lofling part of their dominions ; and the
rivallhip of the two nations kept Spaih in a
Continual flate of war.
Kingdoms of the North in^ Poland felt the
the 1 2th and iph Cent. J calamities brought
upon her by the unfortunate reign of Bdleflaus IL
That kingdom, divided among many petty fo-.
vereigns, was expofed to the horrors of anarchy,
and fijnk into obfcurity, while the inhabitants
were expofed to all the calamities infeparable
from oppreiTion and want of good government.
— The hiftory of RuHia, in this period, prefents
us with nothing, but fome excurfions into Po-
land and Bulgaria, and an irruption of the
Tartars, who forced the Ruflians to fubmir to
the conqueror's yoke. — ^ — Bohemia was blelTed
with wife kings, and noble actions ; but thefe
events were only of a domeftic nature, and not
blended with the affairs of the reft of Europe.-—
The Swedes became gradually more civilized*
Chriftianity took root among them. St. Eric
collecfted the ancient laws into a code, and
added new ones. The Goths and Swedes
coalefced, fo as to become one people, and
Sweden was enlarged by the conqueft of Fin-
land.
R 2 The
{26o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.V.
The hiftory of modern Denmark began with
Waldemar I. a great king. He united into one
the different parts of the kingdom, enlarged it
by new conqueds, obliged the Rugians to fub-
mit, conquered the Vandals, who continually
infelled the frontiers, and laid the foundations
of Copenhagen and Dantzick. Canute II. his
fon, added Livonia and Efthonia to his king-'
dom. Waldemar II. by the conquefl of Pome-
rania, Mecklenburg, Courland, and all the
fouthern coafl of the Baltic, farther enlarged
the boundaries of Denmark. Count Schwerin,
a Danifh nobleman, at his departure for the
holy land, recommended to him the care of his
wife till his return; the king debauched her in
his abfence, which was the caufe of his ruin.
The count, upon his return to Denmark, ftirred
up the whole kingdom to rebel. Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, and the duchy of Holftein fhook
off the yoke; Dantzick became a republic, and
the Teutonic knights poffeffed themfelves of
Prufliaand Livonia.
In Hungary, Stephen IL the conqueror of the
Bulgarians and Greeks, obliged the Venetians
to furrender Croatia. Bela, though a cruel
uncle deprived him of fight, governed with
w4fdom and prudence. Andrew II. famous on
account of his expedition to the Loly land, and
ffill more fo for that memorable law, which
gave liberty to the Hungarians to withftand
their
Lect. v. modern history, (261)
their prince when he attempted to violate their
privileges; Bela IV. the darling of his people,
who had the misfortune to fee his country laid
waftc, the cities and villages burnt, and more
than a million of his fubjedls mafTacrcd by five
hundred thoufand Tartars from the heart of
Alia.
Venue, — The republic of Venice was at the
fummit of her glory in the thirteenth century.
Her wars with the Hungarians whom fhe de-
feated ; the pofTeflion of Dalmatia, which the
Greek emperors could not take from her; the
protedion llie gave the popes ; her fuccefs
againft the emperors of Germany ; the honour
of taking Conflantinople, which fhe fhared with
the French crufaders ; the acquiiition of Candia»
and other iflands in the Archipelago ; all thefe
made this republic one of the moft powerful
ftates in Europe. — The Genoefe alfo made a
figure in the fame period: they formed fettle- ^
ments in the Black Sea, conquered the ifland
of Coriica, and, after a long ftruggle, divided
Sardinia with xh^ Pifans.
Hans Towns. — Whilit anarchy prevailed in
Germany, Hamburgh, Lubeck, and feveral
other cities, entered into a wife afTociation, to
keep off from themfelves the confufion around
them, to give mutual affiftance, and for the
increafe of trade. After this union, which
rendered them formidable to their neighbours,
R 3 they
(262) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
they regulated their internal govjernment, ex-
tended their commerce^ increafed their marine,
acquired the empire of the north feas, and
rivalled the moil powerful kingdoms. About
the fame time, Lucca, Pifa, and Florence in
Itab/, formed a fimilar confederacy, gave them-
felves to trade and commerce, and thereby be-
came wealthy and powerful.
Empire of Conjlantinoplc^-T'ht Greek empire
felt great revolutions during this period. Alexis
Comnenus procured, by the exercife of great
talents, the enjoyment of tranquillity to his do-
minions. John Calo, his fuccefibr, defeated the
Turks and Hungarians feveral times. Mrcnuel
Comnenus procured the hatred of the crufaders
by his cunning, and the love of the Greeks by
his liberality. Alexis II. was murdered by hi§
uncle Andronicus, who ufurped the throne; and
he, in his turn, was put to death by Ifaac
Angelus. Ifaac 's defeat by Frederick, whom
he attempted to (lop on his march to the holy-
land, changed the affecftions of the people ; and
his brother Alexis laying hold bi the opportu-
nity, dethroned him, fhut him up in prifon, and
put out his eyes. It was then that the French
crufaders, in conjuntflion with the Venetians;,
took poiTelTion of Conliantinople. The Greeks
prefervcd only fome remains of their empire.
Theodore lafcaris crowned at Nice, recom-
mended himfelf, by his refpedable qualities, to
the
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (263)
the Latins and Turks. John Ducas, his fon-in-
law andTucceiTor, fccured the Afiatic provinces,
drove the French from Romania, and feized on
Adrianople. And Michael Paleologus, the mur-
derer of young John Lafcaris, drove away the
Tartars, repulfed the Turks, and took advan-
tage of the misfortunes of the houfe of Suabia,
to put an end to the mock empire of the Latins
in the eaft.
Tuiks, — The crufaders at firfl difcomfited
the Turks, and obliged thern to take refuge in
the mountains of Taurus and Armenia; but
having foon returned, fultan Sanguin threaten-
ed the kingx'om of Jerufalem, Noradin, his
fon, pofTefTed hifnfelf of the cities Edeffa, Anti-
och, and Damafcus, and brought Syria, Mefo-
ptitamia, and Cilicia, under the dominion of
the Turks. While he attacked Paleftine, his
generals made a conquefb of Egypt. Saladin,
who fucceeded to his- dominions by marrying
his widow, defeated the Chriftians, became
maflcr of Jerufalem, and in the midfl 01 his
victories, difplayed a moft humane and generous
difpolicion. Attacked by the moft formidable
cru fade that had ever appeared in Judea, h^
broke and difperfed it almoft without nght-'^g.
In a word, the great Saladm, maftero^an ex-
tenfive empire, beloved by his fi;-fjjed:s, and
dreaded by his enemies, ended iiis days pcace-
^Xji crowned with honours and triumphs. —
Rf Hi?
(264) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
His children quarrelled among thcmfelves ; at
the faiTic time a numerous army of Tartars, led
by the famous Gengifkan, fell upon the Turkiflv
provinces ; the Mamalucks took polTeflion of
Egypt, and the empire of the fultans feemed to
]bc annihilated.
Revolutions in Governments in^ — The king-
the 12th and i^th Centuries, J doms of Eu-
rope feit many alterations in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. In Germany, the confti-
tution was wholly changed. Under the Othoes
it was a real monarchy. The executive pov/er
was altogether in the emperors; the German
barons were the real fubjeds, free, but not in-
dependent. The long quarrels between Rome
and the empire, put an end to this harmony. —
The great valTals taking advantage of the gene-
ral confulion fliook off all dependence; the
bifhops and abbots became fovereign princes ;
fo that the emperors of Germany after this re-
volution, were, and are at prefent,only the chief
of many fovereigns, decorated with pompous
titles, but havmg only the Hiadow of power.
A contrary revolution took place in France,
Eouis V[. by his activity and fiimnefs, confider-
ably weakened the ariftocratical power, and
PhiUp A'aguftus completed the revolution. — •
Many lord s\liena ted their lands, and the crown
W^as a gainer by it. The conqueft of the moft
valuable provinces the Englilh polTcfred in
France^
Lect. V% MODERN HISTORY. (265)
France, afforded Philip the means to humble
other valFals. By the crufade againft the Albi-
genfes, the counts of Thouloufe loil their power;
and the vid:ory of Eouvines diminifhed that oT
the earls of Flanders. — Philip took advantage
of all thefe events to ftrengthen his authority,
and by giving pay to his troops, rendered it lefs
precarious. Louis IX. perfedled the work, by
introducing order and regularity into all the
departments of the ftate ; from that time
France, being freed from feudal anarchy, made
a confpicuous figure among the firft powers of
Europe.
The government in England underwent a
very different revolution. Under the tw^o Wil-
liams a mofldefpotic government prevailed. —
Under th^ two firfb Henries and Richard, it was
more mild, but not lefs vigorous. The inabi-
lity, tyranny, and misforturies of John Lackland,
furnifhed the Englifli nation with an opportu-
nity to throw off the odious yoke of defpotifm.
The barons laid claim to their ancient privileges.
Liberty, that noble pafiion, was kindled in every
heart. The Englifh obtained the Great Char-
ter, that facred depoiitory of their liberties ;
and in the reign of Henry III. they laid the
foundation of that wife form of government,
equally removed from the confiilion of arifto-
4:racy^ and the defpotifm of monarchy.
Though
(266) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
Though the feudal government was ftill in
vigour in Spain, yet the monarchical form was
infeniibly gaining ground, fo that a revolution
would foon happen.
The power of the popes was confiderably en-
larged during that period. The crufades, che
anarchy which prevailed in Germany, and the
inftitution of the mendicant orders, were the
three caufes which concurred to the increafe of
the fee of Rome. By means of thefe three.
Innocent III. who knew how to ufe them to
his own advantage, reigned with an abfolute
authority over the weft, and with his thunder/
flruck crowned heads to the ground, whenever
they ad:ed contrary to his pleafure.
Lazvs in the 12th and lyh Centuries. — What
moft claims our attention, is the regeneration
of laws which took place in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. The favage and barbar-
ous cuftoms of the feudal times began to give
place to a more reafonable and perfect jurifpru-
dence. — St. Eric compofed a code of laws for
Sweden. The ftates of Arragon made Ifatutes
which defined the prerogative of their kings,
and the rights of the people. Alphonfo X.
king of Caftile, publillied judicious regulations,
known by the name of Las Partidas, In Eng-
land thofe famous affemblies called Parliament
began. Several cities in Germany and Italy
made laws for their better government In
France,
^:
JLect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (267)
France, Louis IX. made regulations, by which
the weak were fafe from opprcflion, appointed
magifrrates to fludy and explain the laws, and
tribunals to put them in execution. Juflinian's
code, found by Warner, introduced this reform
into all the kingdoms of Europe. This man, ad-
miring the wifdom of that excellent collection,
conceived the defign of givmg public ledures
upon civil law. Seconded by the emperor
Lothaire, he fet up a fchool at Bologna, which
foon became celebrated through Europe. —
Many other fchools were foon formed upon
the plan of that at Bologna, and jurifprudence
became a favourite ftudy.
Manners ip. the i lib and \i^th Centuries, — The
manners of European nations vifibly altered for
the better, in the courfe of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries. Savage manners gave place
to civilization, and inhumanity to feniibiiity. —
OpprelTion v< as detefted and innocence protec-
ted. Even war was carried orv with lefs cruel-
ty, and the miferies infeparable from it, great-
ly alleviated. In every kingdom there were
numbers of knights errant, who, animated with
courage, humanity, gallantry, a love of juftice,
honour and devotion, performed prodigies of
valour in defence of the fair fex. This tended
to polifh manners, and gave them a. milder
caft. Gallantry was efteemed the mod anriiablc
quality a kmght could poITefs. — Each knight
made
(268) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V,
made choice of a lady to whom all his fervices
were devoted. By protecting innocence, and
doing juftice to thofe who were wronged, vio-
lence and opprcflion feniibly decreafed. The
mofl fcrupulous adherence to truth, became
the diftinguifhing c ha racier i (lie of a man of
honour.
Religion in the i2th and ipb Centuries. — The
kingdoms of Europe were ftill Roman Catholic,
and the popes of Rome adled defpotically in
fpiritual matters. The darknefs of fuperilition
and ignorance ftill covered the Chriftian world,
though not to that degree it had formerly done.
Some rays of light broke out amidfl the gloom,
and the right of private judgment, in matters
of religion, w^as claimed by a few, in oppoiition
to an implicit faith in do(5lrines, which they
thought were unreafonablc, unfcriptural, and
abfurd. The hiftorians of thofe times ftigma-
tized all who maintained doclrines oppofite to
the credenda of the church of Rome, w4th the
name of Manichees, and imputed to them all
forts of crimes. But it may by obferved, that
moft of thofe hiftorians were monks, who, fee-
ing things through a wrong medium, wrote
under the influence of a blind zeal. Popular
reports, fimple appearances, are all the proofs
thefe credulous and fanatic hiftorians advance,
-rr-The principal oppofers of Romiih tyranny,
were
Lect. V- MODERN HISTORY. (269)
were the Albigenfes, with whofe principles the
reader is already acquainted,
Peter Bruys, in France, taught dodlrines con-
trary to thofe of the church of Rome. He may
be faid to have been the founder of the Baptifts;
at lead, he feems to have been the firfl who -
broached that dodlrine which diflinguifhes
them from other Proteftants. With him,
*' Baptifm is an ufelefs ceremony, when admi-
niftered before the age of puberty, the mafs a
vain and ridiculous worfhip, purgatory the in-
vention of priefts for their own intereft, the crofs
an abominable lign." The firfl tenet is not
adopted by the generality of Proteftants ; but
the others are conformable to found reafon, and
the purity of religion. Peter Bruys is faid, not
to have conducted himfelf properly in announ-
cing thefe doctrines. This perhaps may be
true, or perhaps it is only a flander caft upon
his memory by his enemies. Be that as it may,
he was burnt for his opinions, and is certainly
entitled to the name martyr. Reigning errors
are difficult to remove, and, when an attempt
is made to put an end to them, it^lhould be done
without violence and outrage ; for however well
meant our intentions may be, yet if we put
them improperly in execution, we, upon the
whole, do more evil than good. However, he
who oppofes prevailing errors, is fure to have
his good evil fpoken of bv the generality.
Arnold
f 270) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
Arnold of Brefcia was a fuperior characfler to
Peter Bruys. Learned above thofe of his time,
a man of piety, bold, eloquent, he preached
againft the prevailing doctrines, and againft the
clergy. Monks, priefts, bifliops, popes, were
painted by him in their true colours. The
miniflers of Jefus Chrift, he faid, fliould be
poor and humble, and not grafp at the wealth
of this world. His preaching affedled his
hearers, and ftirred them up againft the clergy,
whofe property they pillaged, and did violence
to their perfons. This was a wrong way to
bring about a reformation. Arnold, protecfted
by the emperor Frederick I. haftened to Rome,
and, with the populace on his fide, drove the
clergy from the Vatican. But falling into the
hands of pope Adrian II. he caufed him to be
burnt in 1155, ^^^ ^^s allies thrown into the
Tyber.
Religious orders, — The twelfth and thirteenth
centuries may be called the aera of monks, and
of monadic inflitutions in Europe. Befides the
three orders of knights called Hofpitaller, temp-
lar, and Teutonic, to which the crufadcs gave
birth, Spain produced three others upon the
fame plan, that of Calatrava, that of St. lago or
St. James, and that of Alcantara.
John de Matha in France, and Peter Nolafquc
in Spain, inftituted two other very refpedable
orders, the bafis of which is humanity. Thefe
two
Lect. v. modern history, (271) ,
two men, commiferating the miferies of Chrif-
tians kept in captivity by the Moors, dedicated
their time to the toilfome but laudable employ-
ment of collecfting alms from the charitable,
and then laid them out in the ranfom of thofe
unhappy perfons, who, not having wherewith
to purchafe their redemption, were in danger,
either to abjure the religion of their fathers, or
to experience all the horrors of captivity. —
Thefe two inftitutions are called the order of
the Trinity, and the order of Mercy, the mem-
bers of which are ftill attached to the generous
maxims of their founders, and therefore deferve
to furvive the extindlion of every other religious
order, the time of which, in all probablity, is
not far off.
In this period, the order of Ciftercian monks
made a confpicuous figure, and became celebra-
ted by the genius and eloquence of Bernard its
reftorer. The monks of this order were very
ufeful to France. — Having a tafte for agricul-
ture, they applied themfelves to the cultivation
of the ground, which, from being barren and
wade, was, by their improvement, covered with
grafs, vines, and corn. — The order of Clugny,
fallen into obfcurity, was revived in the fame
age, by the great virtues of its patron the abbot
Peter de Mont Boiffien In a word, the four
orders of mendicants, which have made fo
much noife in the world, were then inftituted.
V The
(272) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
The minor brothers, or Francifcans, lince divi-
ded into many inferior orders, all of w horn claim
the honour of having Francis AfTifa for their
founder; the brother preachers, or Dominicans,
founded by Dominic k Gufman, author of the
inquifition ; the Auguflins and Carmelites. —
Thefe monks incrcafed prodigioufly, gained the
confidence of the people, became the favourites
of princes, and were fupported by the popes,
whofe fpies and knights errant they have been.
Sciences in the 12 lb and lyb Centuries, — The
frequent journies of the inhabitants of Europe
into the eafi: in the time of the crufades, gave
birth to geography, then fcarcely known. Curi-
ofity led Mark Paul, a Venetian, as far as China,
and the relation of his travels, publifhed by him^
contributed to enlarge mens ideas of the know-
ledge of our globe. Navigation alfo, and com-
merce made confiderable progrefs. Univerfities
were founded in different parts of Europe. —
That of Paris became famous, by the reputation
of William Champeaux, of Peter Abelard, the
conftant lover of the tender Heloife, and of Peter
Lombard. Notwithflanding the ignorance of
true philofophy which then prevailed, England
produced a Roger Bacon, a man much fuperior
to the age in which he lived ; a man acquaint-
ed with mechanics, optics, aflronomy, and che-
miftry ; and who is faid to have been the in-
ventor of burning glaifcSi of the telefcope, and
gunpowder^
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (275)
gunpowder. He was accufed of magic, beraufe
his genius enabled him to foar above the igno-
rance of his time.
TarturSy Gengijkan, — Before we conclude this
led:ure, we would fay a few w^ords concerning
the Tartars and Gengifkan. The Tartars are
the defcendants of the ancient Scythians, and
inhabit that immenfe trad: of country, extend-
ing from China to the North Pole ; but diftin-
guifhed by different names, as Ufbec Tartars,
Mogul Tartars, &c. Nature has endowed
them with a high relifh for liberty, and a wan-
dering life. They confider cities as prilbns,
and thofe who live in them as flaves.
Their wandering and unfettled life, their
continual expofure to the inclemency of the
weather, brace their nerves, make them a hardy
race, and are favourable to population. They
are flrangers to many difeafes w^hich afflid:
more civilized nations. Aliatic Tartary is that
large refervoir, from whence ilTued thofe mul-
titudes of favage warriors, who overwhelmed
Europe.
The Tartars are divided into diflincft hordes,
each of which has a chief; and feveral hordes
unite under one Kan. Their religion is the
grolTeft kind of idolatry ; they pay divine ado-
ration to one of their own fpecies, whom they
call Lamas their virtues are few, and their-
' S Tices
(274) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
vices fuch as are incident to people in a rude
and favage ftate.
GafTerkan, chief of the Mogul Tartars, and
grandfather of the famous Gengifkan, about the
beginning of the thirteenth century, fubjeded
many neighbouring hordes to a ftate of vaflalage,
and founded a kind of monarchy, which hi&
grandfon, Gengis, extended over a great part of
the world.
Between the country of the Mogul Tartars
^nd China is a kingdom, faid to have been the
dominions of Prefter John» fo famous in the
ancient hiftories of the crufades, fabuloufly re-
ported to have been a C hriftian prince, and king
of Ethiopia. Prefter John was a Tartar prince ;
Gengiflian attacked, vanquifhed, and deprived
him of his dominions. This conqueror's pro-
per name was Temugin : he aflumed that of
Gengifkan, or great Kan, upon account of his
vidlories and conquefts. A prophet,, it is faid,
predided to him, that he would be the fove-
reign of many kingdoms. Gengis was a legif-
lator as well as a conqueror. In an aflembly of
Tartars, he declared that there is but one God;
that none ftiould be hurt on account of his reli-
gion. He prohibited adultery upon pain of
death, but allowed polygamy. He eftabliftied
a moft fevere military difcipline. As the Tar-
tar laws were publiftied in their aflemblies by
word of mouth, and not written, he enabled
one
Iect. v. modern history. (275)
5ne which tended to infpire his foldiers with
the moft heroic courage ; it was, that the fol-
dier, who, in the day of battle, being called to
the aflillance of his fellow foldiers, refufed to
aflifl them, fhbuld be punifhed with death.
The conquefts of Gengifkan were fo furprif-
ingly rapid, that they appear like the fidtions of
romance. From the extremity of the eaft he
carried war and conquefl into Perfia and India ;
the greateft part of China fubmitted to his
power. The caliph of Bagdad, ftripped of his
dominions, and held in fubjedion by fultan
Mahomet, invited Gengis to his afliftance. He
came and marched againft Mahomet. Euro-
pean battles, particularly thofe of modern times,
are but fkirmifhes, when compared with thofe
of Afia. Mahomet, with an army of four hun-
dred thoufand combatants, engaged Gengifkan^
who, with his four fons, were at the head of
feven hundred thoufand troops. Gengis remain-
ed mafter of the field of battle, and took the
city Otrar, in Perfia, near which it was f oughts
Cannon were not then known, he employed
the battering ram in the fiege.
It might perhaps afford the reader but little
entertainment to attend Gengifkan in his con-
quefts ; let it fufhce to obferve, that his vidlori-
ous arms, like an overflowing flood, carried all
before them wherever they came ; but he con-
quered only to deftroy. His empire, which
JS 2 extended
(276) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. V.
extended from Ruflia to China, W2is an immenfc
defert, without cities or cultivated lands. The
farmer who cultivates his farm, the man who
promotes trade and manufactures, are much
more refpedable characflers than thofe who
have been conquerors, and nothiner more.
Gengifkan on his return from his cooquefls,
halted at the city Toncat, in the centre of his
vaft empire; thither his vidtorious generals,
and tributary princes, brought him the treafures
of Alia. In the plains of Toncat, he celebra-
ted a triumph for his vicflories over fo many
nations, in which appeared a mixture of Tartaric
barbarity, and Aliatic luxury. The Kans, the
companions of his vidlories, and their vafTals,
appeared in chariots of the ancient Scythian
make, but covered with fine cloth, and adorned
with the gold and jewels of the vanquifhed na-
tions. There Gengifkan received the homage
of five hundred ambalTadors from the countries
he had conquered. From thence he went to
conquer the kingdom of Tangut, but a mortal
diftemper prevented him from executing his
defign, and he died in 1230 of the Chriftian
aera.
Hiftorians relate that feveral perfons were
killed upon his tomb ; and, that this barbarous
cuflom is flill attended to at the death of his
fuccefTors who reign in Tartary. If this is true,
it was probably the captives who were facrificed
to
Lect. V. MODERN HISTORY. (277)
to his manes. Homer tells us that Achilles
caufed feveral Trojans to be put to death upon
Patroclus* tomb. The Tartars, from admira-
tion of Gengifkan, imagined that his father was
a fupernatural being. If he had a fupernatural
being for his father, he mufl have been one of
the infernal race.
The monks who travelled into Tartary, fay,
that Gengiflcan was a defpot. Their affertion
does not feem probable ; lince the feudal fyflem
(till prevails in that country. Thofe who at-
tended him in his wars, were the companions
and gainers of his vidlories, but not his fiaves.
Defpotifm cannot prevail where a fpirit of in- .
dependence reigns. The empire of the Mogul
Tartars eftabliihed by Gengifkan and his Ions,
was weakened on all fides by Tamerlane, about
a hundred and fifty years after. Hence it may
be obferved, that empire gained by rapid con-
queft, has never been of any long duration.
Another conqueror arifes, who flrips the fuccef-
fors of the former of their dominions; or the
conquered nations caft off the yoke. Talents
for conqueft and government are feldom uni-
ted in the fame perfon. The Tartars have no
written laws, either civil or religious. Igno-
rant and favage they are fbill deftitute of the
means which have brought fociety in Europe to
its prefent flate of perfedtion. The Tartars of
the thirteenth century conquered, in about the
S 3 Ipacc
(27S) MODERN HISTORY* Leg t. VI,
fpace of twenty-four years, half our globe,
This is the whole of their hiftory we are ac-
quainted with.
LECTURE VI.
Revolutions in Kingdoms^ — Governments^ — Legif-^
lationy — Manners y — Cujloms^ — Reiigiony The
general Spirit of Europe ; — Sciences ^ — Arts, —
in the fourteenth and fifteenth Centuries.
WERE hiftory only anobje(5lofcuriofity,it
would be much inferior to other literary
produdlions, nor would it deferve the attention
of thofe who read for inftrudlion and improve-
ment. With what does the hiftory of nations
prefent us ? It exhibits to the reader's view an
extenfive fcene of human weaknefTes and im-
perfedlions, of faults, crimes, and misfortunes,
all owing to the fituations, circumftances, and
pafiions of men ; amidft which we difcover
fome virtues, fome qualities truly amiable, feme
worthy ac5tions, fome fortunate fuccefs ; as in a
rural fcene we difcover lome fertile fpots inter-
fperfed among rocks, precipices, and barren
ground. Hitherto the hiftory of Europe has
prefented a pic^ture of the baleful efteds of law-
jels jpower, of liiperftition, of favage manners,
and
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (279)
and abfurd cuftoms. On one fide we have fccn
three fourths of the human race bowed down
lender the moft abjeci and fhameful flavery,
trodden under foot, their lives and properties a
prey to a fet of mifcreants ; on the other fide, a
few tyrants, a difgrace to humanity, opprefTrng
their fellow men, and rendering their exiftence
a tilFue of calamities. One can fcarcely con-
ceive how the human race Ibould have allowed
themfelves for fo many ages to be treated in fo
unworthy a manner; 'that they ihould not, from
a fenfe of their natural rights, and a defire to re-
claim them, have emancipated themfelves from
thofe evils, in comparing the prefent rtate of
Europe, with what it was in the middle ages,
we are tempted to believe that the hillorians of
thofe times have written a bitter invedive in-
ilcad of a true hiftory ; that from a mifanthro-
pical turn of mind, they dipt their pen in gall, to
blacken our anceftors in the eyes of their po-
flerity. However, the joint teftimony of fo
many witnefTes will not allow us to call in quef-
tion the truth of what they relate. As long as
Europe was held in the fangs of ignorance and
fuperitition, it was a theatre on which almoft
nothing appeared but violence and crimes, vices
and misfortunes. But in proportion as light
penetrated that darknefs, order has fucceeded
to confulion; the evils which afflided mankind
Juve decreafed ; thofe convullive motions which
S 4 ihook
(28o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect, VL
fliook nations, have been lefs frequent; political
and religious frauds have not been able fo eafily
to impofe on men ; arbitrary power has not fo
exrenfive an empire; manners are become gra-
dually civilized, and men have breathed a purer
air. As human knowledge increafed, the evils
which fo long opprelTed men have diminifhed.
In vain would fome attempt to difprove this ;
the hiftory of the nations of Europe fhews the
falfehood of their paradoxes. True indeed,
weak, corrupted, or wicked men, abufe the
power of the human mind ; but when thefe arc
under proper diredion, and when knowledge is
ufed to its proper end, the peace, profperity, and
happinefs of nations, are the confequence.
Should we defirethe abfence of the fun, becaufe
that beneficent luminary, who revives and em-
belUfhes nature, iomet mes raifes noxious ex-
halations which fpread mortality and pefli-
lence over fome parts of this globe ? We flould
alwcjysdiltinguifb the abufe of things from the
things themfeh es, and never allow ourfelvcs to
be impoied on by the fpecious reafoning of any.
. Revohit tons in kingdoms in the \ — The fall of
\^th and ic^th centuries. J the Greek em-
pire was the mofl" important revolution in the
period under review. lo unfold the caufes
wMch at length brought it about, let us rake a
v^ew of ancient Rom.e. Attend the progrels of
that ctlebraied republic, examine all tht re-
fources
Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (28f)
Xources of her government, and weigh her in
the balance of truth, without being warped by
thofe prejudices which the want of a thorough
knowledge of her hillory is apt to produce.
We fee Rome continually verging from anarchy
to defpotifm, from defpotifm to anarchy, and •
from that to flavery. The Romans, whofe wif-
dom is fo much extolled, had a very imperfedh
government. They feem to have been entirely
unacquainted with that happy balance of power,
which can be maintained only by a right adjuft-
ment of each order in the ftate, and by a wife
combination of the different bodies, fo as to
conduce to the general welfare of the fociety.
Behold Rome under Romulus, her firft king;
the Romans were then a troop of robbers with-
out laws, manners, and arts. The religion
which Numa introduced into Rome, loftened a
little the ferocity of his fubjeds ; but there were
no fixed laws, no ftable form of government.
Hoftilius, being a warrior, paid no regard to
legiflation; nor did Tarquin I. Servius, a wife
prince, fenfible of the confuiion which had
hitherto prevailed, endeavoured to introduce
order into the ftate, and entrufted the authority
with a fmall number of men, who compofed
the fenate. Tarquin the Proud deftroyed the
edifice his father-in-law had raifed, and, know-
ing no law but his own imperious will, alike
tyrannized over the fenate and the people. The
revolutiou
(2S2) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. VI.
revolution brought about by Brutus, did indeed
put an end to the defpotifm of monarchy, but
did not reflore liberty to the people. The
Patricians feized the authority, and made the
yoke of the people more heavy. The firft age
of the Roman republic (fo much admired by
fome) was not the age of liberty to all ranks in
the Hate. What was the condition of the Ple-
beians, that is, the body of the nation? Offices
and honours were the exclufive privilege of the
nobility. The mofl of the Roman territories
were their property. The Patricians increafed
ufury, and by that fhameful means, got all the
money into their own hands. The fituation of
moil of the citizens was then bad. They were
dragged from their houfes, treated with indig-
nity, fhut up in prifon, beaten with rods ; flaves
could not be w^orfe treated. The people op-,
prefled by tyrants, durffc do juftice to themfelves,
and retreated to mount Aventine. Memmius
brought them back to the city, tribunes were
created to proted them, and the people found
fome relief in this inftitution ; but the body of
the nation was no lefs unhappy. There could
be no tranquillity in a ftate, where every thing
was arbitrarily determined, as at Rome. Vio-
lence and intrigue every where prevailed, and
diforder naturally followed this anarchy. In
this horrible confulion, the Romans bethought
themfelves to feek for a form ot government iix
the
Lect. VI MODERN HISTORY. (283)
the laws of Athens. Decemvirs were created,
and to them was entrufted the digeftion and
execution of thefe laws. The reader knows the
refult of this inftitution : he knows the pride,
the debauchery, the crimes of Appius, and his
coliegues. The Romans were foon forced to
put an end to this odious magiftracy, and re-
turn again to confuls and tribunes. But were
they more tranquil and happy? From that
time the tribunes oppofed the fenate, and the
fenate oppofed the tribunes. There could be no
proper equilibrium between two powers almoft
equal; but blind, unjuft, enraged againft each
other, and capable not only of their mutual de-
flrudlion, but of that of the (late. The annals
©f the Roman republic for the four firft centu-
ries prefent us with a people, who, animated
by their magiftrates, profcribed and baniflied
the moft illuftrious fenators ; with fenators, who
pillaged and tortured the moil innocent citizens,
overturned the tribunals, tore the confular robes,
and drenched the tribunitian chair in blood;
we fee Patricians, with clubs in ther hands, dri-
ving before them the people, who would have
oppofed their injuliicej and plebeians pouring
fhowers of ftones upon thofe refpeclable Patri-
cians who would have checked their fury. Is
this a pidlure of a wife and tranquil govern-
ment ? Their external profperity produced do-
xneftic diforder. The fenators, to put an end
to
(284) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
to the fadlions v/hich reigned in Rome, fent the
citizens abroad, and kindled thofe wars which
got the Romans fuch an immenfe extent of ter-
ritory. But this expedient produced another
evil. In their wars, at a diftance from the
capital^and with powerful enemies, the Romans
were obliged to fend numerous armies, and
allow them to be long under the command of
generals, to whom they gave an unlimited au-
thority. Thefe chiefs having for many years,
tafted the fweets of independence, and the
pleafure of commanding ; upon their return to
Rome, would not obey the laws, but behaved
like imperious mafters. Such was Sylla, who
firft fet the fatal example. Such were Pompey,
and CralTus who imitated him Such was
Caefar, who, more fkilful, m^^re active, and in
greater favour with his troops, finifned the
flavery of the Roman nation. The fuccelTors
of Auguftus were moflly cruel, cowardly, in-
fatuated tyrants. The happy reign of the \n^
tonini did but fufpend for a moment, the evils
■which afflidled the Romans. After them they
grew v/orfe. A military government took place,
and revolutions w^ere very frequent. The em-
perors fupported themfelves on the throne by
violence, perfidy, and all forts of crimes. Con-
fiantine transferred the feat of empire to Con-
ftantinople, and planted there all the defeds of
the Roman government ^ and the Greeks, tia-
turallv
Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (285)
turally vain, inconftant, and factious, incfeafed
them. Superflition gave rife to new troubles
and misfortunes; fo that nothing could be {ccn
in Conflantinople, but fcenes of confuiion and
cruelty. Is it furprifing, that an empire with
fuch a defedlive coniiitution, ihould at laft have
been overturned by an able fultan, at the head
of a nation blindly devoted to his will, trained
to war from their infancy, animated with the
fervour of religion, and the hopes of the mofl
glorious conquefts ? If there is any thing fur-
prifing in this revolution, it is, that the Greek
empire, confidering its imperfed:ions, fhould
have fublifted fo long. The only human means
which preferved the eaflern empire for fo many-
centuries, was the iituation of Conflantinople,
The barbarians, who difmembered the Roman
empire, ifTuing from the northern extremities
of Europe, could eafily penetrate into the wef-
tern provinces, by the way Poland and Germany.
They had no fea to pafs, and the^ overpowered
the Roman legions with their number. But
thefe barbarians, having no fhips, and being
entire flrangers to the art of navigation, could
not enter the eaflern empire, the greateft part
of which, was compofed of the iflands in the
Archipelago and Levant. They would have
been oblis^ed to crofs the Adriatic Guluh^ be-
fore they could block up Condantinopie ; but
they had no fleet. It is no t at all furp rifnig, that
the
(2S6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
the eafbern empire efcaped the firft irruption of
the barbarians, fo fatal to the Roman power in
the weft. The Turks faw the neceffity of at-
tacking the Greeks by fea. The Genoefe fur-
nifhed them with fhips for hire, and Amurath L
feizcd on Adrianople. His fon Bajazet, laid
fiege to Conilantinople, and the empire would
then infallibly have been overturned by the
Othmans, had not the Chriftians made a diver-
fion in Hungary, and had not the vidrorious
arms of 'Jamerlane overwhelmed Bajazet with
misfortunes in Alia. The Othman family foon
got the better of this difaller. Amurath II.
made the Greeks tributary to him, and Maho-
met II. his fucceflbr, put an end to their em-
pire. *
While the Turks were fixing the feat of their
empire at Conftantinople, Ferdinand and Ifa-
bella put an end to the power of the Arabians in
Spain. That part of Europe had been, for the
fpace of eight hundred years, a theatre of bloody
wars between two nations, equally animated with
a love of glory, and with a zeal for religion.
Accuftomed to daily hoftilities, almoft every
citizen
* Conftantlne VIII. ftruggled againft his unhappy deftlny
with all the intrepidity of a great king. Betrayed byhis fubjedls,
deferted by Europe, he defended Conftantinople, againft the
fuperior fortune of the invincible Mahomet II. and, with arms
in his hands, finifhed his life and reign upon the walls of that
city. The Greek empire ended in him, in the year I455»
after having lafted above twelve centuries.
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (287)
citizen was a hero. In the animofity which
reigned between the Chriflians and Moors, cun-
ning and perfidy, ftratagem and valour, cruel,
humane and heroic actions, were alternately
difplayed, as any of thefe appeared convenient
for the defeat of their enemy. What could be
the caufe of the fall of the Moors in Spain ?
Were they lefs courageous than the Spaniards ?
This cannot be faid confiftent with the truth of
hiftory. The Chriftian annals of Spain prefent
us with Moors, who, in deeds of valour, equal-
led a Roderick, a Sancho, an Alphonfo. Their
general, as well as particular wars, furnifhed
heroes worthy our admiration. The Moors
were equal to the Spaniards in valour, and fur-
palTed them in knowledge and invention. We
know that the glory of the refurred:ion of fcience
in the Weft belongs to the Moors. They m-
vented and cultivated feveral fciences highly
ufeful to' mankind ; fo that learned and ingeni-
ous men, of latter times, have only improved
upon their invention. If they were not ac-
quainted with painting and fculpture, it was
not from a defedl of genius, but becaufe their
religion forbade them the exercife of the fine
arts. The fame cannot be faid of their archi-
ted:ure ; the remains of the Moorifh edifices in
Spain, ftiew a boldnefs of defign, a variety of
invention, and a fublimity of tafte, which ftrike
with admiration and pleafure. Their poetry,
though
(288) MODERN HISTORY. Lec t. VI.
though gigantic and incoherent, abounds with
many Rallies of genius, and with paflages truly
fublime. It is evident that the Moors were
fuperior to the Spaniards in knowledge and
induftry, and that they were not interior to
them in courage. Whence the reafon then,
that the Moors funk beneath the Chrifiians?
Various caufes may be afligned. The domi-
nions of the Moors in Spain, were more divided
than thofe of the Chriftians. Almoft each city
had a particular fovereign, whereas the king-
doms of the Spanifh Chriftians were compofed
of one, two, or more provinces. The energy
which refults from a whole is lofl, when it is
divided into parts. Difunion continually pre-
vailed among the Moorifh princes. Though
the Spanifli kings often quarrelled with one
another, yet they always united againft the
common enemy. The Saracens did not ad: in
this manner. Blinded by their mutual animo-
lities, they fought againfl the Chriftians, and
againft themfelves, at the fame time. Ferdi-
nand invefted Granada, and, reduced it to great
extremity ; yet in this unhappy fituation, the
uncle and the nephew turned their arms againfl
each other, chufing rather to perifli in the ruin
of their country, than to agree for a moment.
Another caufe of the fall of the Arabians was,
there were among them, a great number of
Chriftians. Thefe were fo many domeftic ene-
mies.
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (289)
mies, labouring continually for the deftrudlori
of their mafters, and always ready to open the
gates of the Moorifh cities to the Spaniards;
and the confequence of this was concealed trea-
fons, or open rebellions. The Spaniards more
wife, would allow very few muifulmen in their
dominions. The Arabians, however, .lOt-
withflianding thefe difadvaniages, difputea the
ground for a long time.
The revolution which the powTrofthe popes
experienced w as a more important one. Their
authority about the beginning of the fourteenth
century knew no bounds. To judge by the
fplendour and magnificence of the Romiih
pontiffs, it does not appear that their power
had hitherto fuffered the leaft diminution-
The proud and ambitious Boniface Vlll. had
the boldnefs, (or rather impudence) to declare
that kings were fubjedl to him, even in temipo-
rals. He adorned his cap with a fecond crown,
and Benedid XII. over-topped it with a thirds
When Caelefline V. entered Rome, two kings
held his afs's bridle. Joan, queen of Naples,-
was obliged to plead her caufe before the court
of Avignon, and the pope pronounced arbitra-
rily refpedling her pretenlions to that crown.
Did the kings of England and France come to
an agreement ? They fubmitted to the cenfures
of Rome, if either fhould infringe any of the
articles. Nay, the emperor of Lonltaniinople,
t T thf^
f^90) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. YL
the only Chriftian prince who had not hither-
to acknowledged the fupremacy of the pontiffs,
came to Florence, and humbled himfelf before
Eugene IV. Paul II. a man fond of fhow and
parade, conferred new honours on the cardinals,
by which he placed them on a level wish Icings^
The popes claimed a right to nominate to all
benefices, and in conferring them, confultcd
neither with princes, nor with their fubjeds j
they fent ccclefiallics into all the kingdoms of
Europe, who feized on livings of every defcrip-
tion, often before the death of the incumbents
Their legates went every where to diRributc
indulgences, to exa(fl the tenths, and to impo-
verifli Hates b^ unjuft impofts, under the name
of colledlions. However, notwithftanding this
appearance of power, the real authority of the
popes was fenfibly diminifhing. Princes begart
to feel the heavy yoke, and had the courage to
Ihake it off. Rodolph rejected the pope's in-
vitation to come to Rome to receive the impe-
rial crown from him, and his refufal did not, in
his opinion, make him one iota lefs a legal em-
peror. The Germanic body, a little while after,
determined in a national afTcmbly, that the cere-
mony of crowning by the pope, adds nothing to
the jufl rights of a prince. — Peter III. king ot
Arragon, oppofed the thunder of Rome, and
Peter IV. turned it into ridicule. The pope
excommunicated Alphonfo of Portugal for
having:
Lzcr. VL MODERN HISTORY. (291)
having divorced his wife. He defpifed the
anathemas of Rome, and his fubjeds did not
ceafe to obey him. Philip the Fair, of France,
firmly oppofed the enormous pretenfions of
Boniface VI J I. and declared his crown and the
French nation, independent of the fee of Rome^
Charles V. prohibited, under fevere penalties,
an application to Rome to obtain church livings
in France. Louis XI. wduld not even allow
the legates to exercife their function, or bring
any decree of the holy fee into his kingdom,
without the confent of the piince* In this pe-
riod, even the univerfities of Europe oppofed
the exceflive pretenfions of Rome. The doc-
tors of the univerfity of Paris wrote a letter to
Clement VII. the boldnefs and freedom of
"which occafioned his death. The divines of
Oxford publicly undertook the defence of John
Wickliff, the moft bold and formidable ene-
my of the popes in thofe days. — — Councils
humbled the pride of the Romilh pontiffs,
and gave a check to their defpotifm. The
members of the council of Conftance called
themfelves the reformers of popes, and exerci-
fed the right of judging and punifliing them.
The council of Bale formally decreed that, ge-
neral alfemblies of the church are fuperior to
the bilhop of Rome, and that they have a right
to deprive him of his dignity, when unworchy
f)f it^ In a word, the wcftern church in the
T 2 four-=^
(292) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
fourteenth century received new ideas and feii-
timents of the power of popes, who had over-
leaped every boundary of moderation and juf-
tice.
Many caufes contributed to effed: this revo-
lution* The exorbitant power grafped by the
popes, was one of the chief caufes of their lof-
ing it. It is common for men to fubmit to
the yoke to a certain degree; but when their
chains become too heavy, they turn furious and
break them. Reafonable creatures were long
blind, but at kit they opened their eyes. Every
fenfible perfon at the court of Rome faw the
approach of her downfal. The pope intended
to fend a legate into England, to demand mo-
ney for his luxury: " Holy father, (faid a car-
dinal to him) w^e treat Chriftian kingdoms as-
the prophet Balaam treated his afs. I am
afraid they will imitate her; fhe,by the feverity
of blows, brayed mofl horribly, and fo will
they."
Clement V. tranflated the papal chair from
Rome to Avignon, this was a fecond caufe of
the decreafe of the power of his holinefs. Moft
people are more attached to words than things,
Rome was confidered as the natural feat of re-
ligion. When the popes ceafed to refide in that
city, Chriftians no longer felt for them the fame
veneration. Beiides, while the popes continued
in Avignon, they were obliged to fubmit to the
afcend-
Le^t. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (293)
afcendency of thofe around them; becaufe that
city was without defence, and furrounded with
the territories of kings, or independent powers,
who governed even to the very gates. Ceryole,
the captain of a band of adventurers, marched
flreigh: to Avignon, demanded a large contribu-
tion from the pope and his court, obliged him to
^ive him abfolution, and admit him to his table.
The celebrated Du Guefclin, in his march to
Spain with a body of troops, demanded a con-
tribution from the pope. The pontiffs who
refided in Avignon, were Frenchmen by birth.
Eager to procure wealth and honours to their
relations, it is not at all furprifing that they were
pliant and cringing to the will of thofe kings,
upon whom their relations depended for riches
and preferment.
The great fchifm in the wefl, was a third
caufe of the decline of the papal power. By
the elecl:ion of two popes at the fame time, the
dignity of the popedom was divided, and Europe,
in confequence of this, came to have lefs refpedt
for men, whole right was not abfolutely certain.
Moreover, each pope, to ftrengthen his party,
made humbling conceflions to gain kings to his
fide; this diminiihed his power, and princes
fold their fubmiflion, and that of their fubjedts,
to either, at a very high price.
Permanent tribunals were eftablifhed in the
fourteenth century, in almoft all the kingdoms
T3 <5f
(294) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
of Europe ; this was a caufe which had but
lately exifted. To them the ftate having given
in charge to watch for the prefervation of the
rights of the prince, and the privileges of the
people, they narrowly obferved every move-
ment of the court of Rome, and quickly gave
the alarm, when fhe attemped in the lead to
violate thofe privileges, the prefervation of
^"which was committed to their care.
In a word, the revival of learning in the wefl,
(to which the taking of Conflantinople contri-
buted) the increafe of civil and religious know-
ledge, gave the mortal blow to the enormous
■ebufes which had crept into the church of Rome
in the ages of ignorance, and increafed the power
of the popes. Then learned and pious men
had the boldnefs to remove the veil which co-
vered fo many impoftures, to follow the chain of
traditions, and fhew their falfehood, to ftudy
the writings, and examine the docflrines of the
primitive church, to find out the limits of civil
and religious power, and in part to deftroy the
ufurpations of both. The downfal of the popc*£
authority drew after it that of the clergy. —
Excommunications became lefs frequent.
Fewer caufes were brought to the tribunals of
the clergy ; bifhops were excluded from civil
courts, and confined within a fpiritual circle;
the clergy were fubjedl to the laws, became
members of civil fociety, and crimes, by whom-
foever
Lict. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (295)
foever committed, did no longer efcape merited
punifliment.
Governments. — Little or no alteration took
place in the government of the German empire
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The
golden bull of Charles IV, which was conform-
able to the fpirit of the times, introduced almoft
nothing new ; it only more precifely afcertain-
cd and fixed the general adminiflration, fuch as
it was in the time of Rodolph, and fince ; and
this form of government continued without al-
moft any change till the reign of Charles V.
The Englifh government felt many revolu-
tions in the period under review ; but the pro-
grefs of thefe was different from what happened
to other kingdoms. In England, the changes
in government increafed the liberty of the peo-
ple, and diminifhed the power of the crown ;
whereas in France, and other European ftates,
alterations in government enlarged the preroga-
tives of the prince, and narrowed the rights of the
fubjed:. The ftates general, or parliament of
England, as confiftingofthe nobility and fuperior
clergy, were powerful before the reign of Ed-
ward I. but that prince, by calling to parliament
the deputies of the people, weakened their au-
thority, and made the body of the nation of more
confequence than it formerly had been. By this
Edward fucceeded in his views, the power of
the nobles was diminifhed, and he governed with
T4 lef^
(296) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
lefs contradidion. The oppofition of the barons
to his father, convinced Edward, that they
might thwart him, and render his reign uneafy ;
that, therefore, the way to fecure his own
power would be, to increafe the power of the
commons of England, fo as to become a coun-
terbalance to that of the nobility : and thus,
what the king meant only for himfelf, was fa-
vourable to the liberties of the people. But
under his fon Edward II. the new members of
parliament became more formidable to the
king than the old had been. Then the Houfe
of Commons began to eftablifh its authority
upon a folid foundation, and, by a firm and uni-r
form conducft, rendered the Englifh parliament
more powerful than it had hitherto been.
Edward II. a weak prince, allowed himfelf to
be governed by contemptible favourites. This
provoked the nation, and the parliament, for
th^ firft time, tried its fovereign according to
law, obliged him to abdicate his dignity, and
prefcribed to the regents* the form of adminif-
tration they muft adhere to.—- — Edward III.
"wholly taken up with war, minded not the in-.
creafe of the power of parliament; and the
Englifh, enchanted with the glorious exploits
of their hero, which refleded honour on them-
felv^s, denied him nothing. But under Edward's
grandfon, the parliament taking advantage of
the inability of the king, and ihe abjed ftate of
the
Lept.VL modern history. (297}
the nation, depofed Richard IL and of its own
authority delivered the fceptre to Henry of
Lancafter, with limitations which rendered him
dependent on the laws. The Englifh nation,
during the fhort reign of Henry V. was fo
deeply engaged in war with France, and fo
dazzled with the fuccefs of their hero, that
neither king nor parliament thought of attend-
ing to their own immediate concerns. Upon the
acceffion of Henry VI. to the throne, the whole
kingdom was overturned by the troubles which
the factions of the white and red rofes were the
caufe of. The people became partizansin the
difpute, incrcafed the calamities by their con-
ducft, alternately crowned the princes of thefe
two rival houfes, and obliged the new monarch
to furrender a part of his prerogatives. In this
manner was formed the prefent fy ftem of Eng-
lifh liberty ; a fyflem which has coft the people
many ftruggles and much blood.
The French government alfo experienced
many changes. In that country, the people,
prior to that time, were flaves, and the citizens
had no fhare in the government. Philip the
Fair admitted the deputies of cities to lit and
vote in the national alfembly ; this was a coun-
terpoife to the power of the nobles. The
French national alfembly, or flates general, re-
gulated the important affairs of the kingdom,
reformed abufes hurtful to the good order and
welfare
(29?) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
welfare of the whole, difplaced thofe who had
acfled badly in the public departments of the
flate, and fixed the taxes for the fupport of go-
vernment. This happy progrefs was interrupt-
ed under the weak reigns of the children of
Philip the Fair, and more fo under the reign of
Philip of Valois. The troubles, imprudence,
and misfortunes of John the Good, plunged
France again into her former confulion ; depri-
ved the monarch of all his authority, and took
from the people the invaluable privilege of re-
gulating the taxes. Charles V. furnamed the
Wife, was a pattern to kings, and the reftorer
of the kingdom. His profound knowledge of
men and things, enabled him always to make
choice of the moft juft and extenfive meafures
for the government of his kingdom. He ufed
to fay, " That kings are happy, only as they
have power and inclination to do good.** Under
the feeble reign of Charles VI. confufion pre-
vailed more than ever. Charles VII. adopted
his grandfather's plan; and, notwithflanding
the mediocrity of his talents, and the continual
wars which agitated his reign, governed wifely,
and fuccefsfully for the happinefs of his people.
Louis XL taking advantage of the fortunate
circumftances Vvhich united large provinces to
his crown, made ufe of artificial politics to
render his authority abfolute. However, none
but the kw, who carpe near the throne, felt the-
arbitrary
Lect. VL modern history. (295^)
arbitrary power of this prince. The people -
were governed with juftice, and confequently
happy. The yoke of the nobles, (thofe fubal-
tern tyrants) fo very weighty to a great part of
the nation, was broken by Louis. Under him the
kingdom was peaceable and tranquil, the throne
recovered its authority, and the people, protected
by the laws, were fafe from oppreifion. We do
not pretend to fay, that the affedtion of Louis XL
for his fubjedls, was the caufe of thofe happy
changes ; no, he had the foul of a tyrant, and
tyrants are not capable of fuch fine feelings;
but finding the freedom of the lower ranks in
the flate to be connected with his own interefts,
he procured happinefs to others, at the fame
time, that his views were wholly felfifh. From
thefe changes in the French vConftitution, the
reader will no doubt fee, that the late revolu-
tion in that country has not only brought back
the government to what it once was, but reflo-
red to the people thofe rights they are juftly
. entitled to ; and if the new conflitution, is an
improvement upon the ancient form of govern-
ment, (as it certainly is) fo much the better.
Few, if any alterations took place in the
Scotch government during the period under
review. For, though the troubles occafioned
by the competition of the Bruces and Baliols,
and the alliffance given by the two Edwards of
England to the latter, might fufpend the exer-
(300) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
cife of government, yet there was no material
alteration. The feudal fyftem prevailed then
in Scotland, and for a long time after ; confe-
quently the Scotch kings of the line of Bruce,
and thofe of the houfe of Stuart, were either
unable, or unwilling to make the inferior ranks
free, and thereby to break the power of the
nobility. The Scotch parliament (fimilar to
the ftates general of France) was compofed of
noblemen, gentlemen, and others, who held lands
of the crown, by military fervice. This tenure,
however fmall the quantity of land, entitled the
polTeiTor to fit and vote in parliament. The
parliament of Scotland had very extenfive pri^
vileges. It not only enabled laws, regulated
the important affairs of the kingdom, kept the
nation's purfe, took account of the expenditure
of money granted for the ufe of government,
and armed the people ; but the king had not a
negative voice upon the proceedings of parlia-
ment, nor could he make war or peace, without
its confent. From this extenfive power of the^
national afiembly of Scotland, their form of
government feems to have been arifl:ocraticaI ;
and with fo limited a power, it is furprifing
that the monarch did not increafe the privileges
of the people, and by fo doing, increafe his own.
Perhaps he found other ways and means to
humble his overgrown fubjedts, and no doubt
thought thefe fufficient, without having recourfc
to any other.
Cafimir
Lect.VI. modern history. (3cr)
Cafimir did in Poland, what Edward I. had
done in England, and Philip the Fair in France.
At firft the general diet of the Polifti nations
was compofed of the prime nobility. To it he
called the inferior barons, or fmall nobility ; but
an uniformity in the fuffrages being afterwards
made requiiite to form a decree, filled thefe
afTemblies with confufion and riot. Nothinor
more flrongly marks the different charadters of
nations, than the oppofite effeds which flow
from the fame principle. In France, the ad-
mifllon of the third order in the flate increafed
the power of the prince, in England, enlarged
the power of the people, and in Poland, produ-
ced only the confuiion of anarchy. But Poland
has at lafl adopted a form of government fimilar
to that of the mofl: enlightened and liberal na-
tions. A revolution favourable to the rights of
men has taken place in that kingdom, the con-
fequences of which, it is to be hoped, \vill be,
the fecurity and increafe of national happinefs.
We grow wife by degrees, fee the errors of our
forefathers, and have courage to redii fy them.
The republic of Venice in this period prefents
us with a remarkable revolution. The princi-
ple of the government had been democratical ;
but this democracy had infenlibly degenerated
into an ariflocracy; moderate enough till the
fourteenth century. All the citizens w^ere
eligible to employments in the ftate, might
take
(302) MODERN HISTORY. Lt^T, Vh
take a part in the mofl important affairs, and
confirm, by their votes, the head of the republic.
— The Doge Gradenigo got a law palTed, by
which only a certain number of chofen families
were admitted into the Great Council; from
that time thefe families became the fole depo-
fitories of government, and the reft of the noble
Venetian families were ranked in the clafs of
fubjecfts. Thus the wreck of the republic was
formed into an abfol ute oligarchy, which brought
all the authority into the hands of a few power-
ful citizens. '
LegrJIalion in the i^th and i^tb Centuries, — Lc-
giflation continued to rlourifh. In Caflile, a
very dangerous and abfurd claufe v/as cut off
from the valfaPs oath of fidelity to his lord 5
that he mufl be faithful to him, even againfl: his
king. In Arragon, torture was not to be ap-
plied to any citizen, fo as by it to extort a con-
feflion from him. In Portugal, king Dionyiius
prohibited the clergy to carry money to Rome.
In Bohemia, John ordered an account of all
property bought and fold, all contracts made
between individuals, to be regiflered in the
public archives ; a law wifely calculated to put
a (lop to avarice and chicane. The French
tongue had been the language ufed in all the
courts of juflice \xf England, from William the
Conqueror to Edward III. This prince pro-
fcribed it, and ordered, that for the future all
pleadings
LecT. VI. MODERN HISTORY, (303;
pleadings fhould be in the Englifh language j
that the judges (hould exj.-rers themfelves in the
vulgar tongue, becaufe a fentence which alfeds
the life or property of a citizen, fhould be pro-
nounced in a language every one understands . —
In France, wife laws changed the face of the
nation. The French abridged the minority of
their kings, made the royal domain unalienable,
and regiftered all the fentences of their courts
of jullice. By this, jurilprudence became fix-
ed; the judges found in thefe records a fure
light to dired: their fteps; the lawyers invariable
principles of law; and the citizens wherew.ch
to dired; their condudl.
Manners in the i^th and i c^ih Centuries, — It is
no eafy tafk to catch and precifely define the
prevailing manners of this period. We may
obferve in general, that the bulk of mankind \xi
Europe, being ftupificd with flavcry, were
Haves to all kinds of vice. Poifon was com-
monly ufed as the indrument of revenge; fo
were frequent and terrible rebellions. The
Levellers in England, the Lollards in Germany,
and t"he Jacket-boys in France, were guilty of
mod fhocking outrages. The people called by
thefe names, where the peafantry, who, being
treated worfe than bcafts by their inhuman and
cruel mafters, became furious lions, tearing in
pieces all that came in their way. We fee, in
the nobility, a mixture of gallantry, fmcerity,
valour
(304) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
valour, and devotion. All the orders of chi-
valry were confecrated to love, to fome faint,
and to aims. During thefe two centuries duels
became very frequent. Kings and princes fent
challenges to one another in the face of Europe.
The nobles imitated them ; and it was almoil
always in honour of fome lady. Many women
ofthofedays diftmguifhed themfelves by teats
of arms. Joan of Arc, or the maid of Orleans,
Joan of Blois, Margaret of Montfort, Margaret
of Anjou, Mary of Molina, Ifabella of Lorram;
tht fe heroines appeared m the field of bacile,
and often determined the fuccefs of the day.
Ciiftoms, — An author of the fourteenth century
complains, that frugal fimplic cy had given
place to luxury ; he laments the times of Fre-
derick BarbarofTa, and Frederick 11. when in
Milan, the capital of Lombardy» the moft
wealthy citizens had hot vid:uals in their fami-
lies, only three times a- week. Wine was uled
but by very few, and in fmall quantities ; a wax
candle was then unknown, and even a common
candle was thought a luxury. The beil citizeiis
made pieces of lighted wood fupply the place
of candles. Shirts and fhifts were made of
ferge, and many of the lower people had none.
— The father, who, upon the day of his daugh-
ter s marriage, could give her five pounds, was
thought a rich man — Things are wonderfully
char.ged, adds the fame author. At prefent
all
LficT.VI. MODERN HISTORY. (305)
all ranks wear linen; women are dreffed in
lilken fluffs; nay, fome of them adorn them-
felves with gold and filver. The comj^laints of
this author inform us of the cufloms of the
period under review. Table linen was then
Very rare in England ; wine was fold only by
apothecaries as a cordial. All the private
houfes in London and Paris were of wood;
cities were unpaved ; chimnies were not then
invented ; the family fat together in a large
room, round a large fire placed in the middle,
with a hole at the top to let out the fmoke.
However, the lords of fiefs, the prelates and
monks, lived in all the magnificence the times
would allow.
Religions, — Chrlflianity and Mahometanifm
were the two religions in Europe in this period*
Heathenifm had difappeared fome time before.
The religion of Mahomet was once very near
being extinguifhed. There were in Egypt, upon
the coaft of Africa, and in the little kingdom
of Grenada, Mahometans who were diflenters
from Mahomet. Gengillcan had abolifhed the
califat, and profcribed the religion of Mahomet
throughout the eafl. The vidlories of the 1 urks
revived it in Afia, with them it came into Eu-
rope, and appeared with the family of Othman
upon the throne of Conliantinople. Tamerlane
and his fons, zealous Mahometans, gave it new
luftre in the eaft ; and MahometanUm prevailed
U froiu
{2o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. \t
from the Ganges to the Gulph of Venice. In
the mean time a fchifm broke out in Perfia,
which was the caufe of great revolutions. Ifh-
mael Sophi called himfelf a defcendant of All,
the prophet's fon-in-law, declared the law of
Mahomet corrupted, and that he was fcnt
by God to reftore it to its original purity.
The changes he propofed were confonant to
reafon; to fame parts of the Alcoran, which
appeared too fevere, he gave a favouiable in-
terpretation ; rejeded the abfurdities of the
followers of Omar, and profcribed thofe tradi-
tions which forbid Mahometans the enjoyment
of innocent pleafures. He fupported his doc-
trine by an agreeable exterior, by a natural elo-
quence, by a mild behaviour, and auftere man-
ners : his reputation foon fpread through Afia,
Tamerlane faw, liftened to him, conceived a
high veneration for him, and prefented him with
thirty thoufand flaves, colledied from different
countries. Ifhmael, feeing himfelf mafter of
the defliny of thefe unfortunates, broke their
chains, gave them their liberty, and endeavour-
ed to make them happy. Thefe Grangers paid
him an implicit obedience, and attached them-
felves to his future fortune. Ifhmael wanted
only favourable circumflances to pufli his am-
bition. Thefe did not offer under Tamerlane*s
immediate fucceifors, he therefore contented
himfelf with having given birth to a new fed:«
This
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. fjdy}
This fedl made no viable advance under his Ton
Guines; but Seih Eidar adopted his grandfa-
ther's defigns, fupported them with the fame
talents, re-animat^d the profelytes of Sophi,
and formed a kind of dominion in Ardevill, his
native country. This fed: increafed, and its
tenets foon extended to the extremities of Perfia.
The famous UiTum CafTam gave his daughter in
marriage to Eidar, who lived in Ardevill with-
out pomp, without any external marks of dif-
tindlion, and made ufe of his influence at court
to protect the unhappy. 7'he extindion of the
male line of Ulfum C aflam gave the Sophi an
undoubted right to the throne of Perfia ; but
Ruftan took pofTeffion of it, profcribed the fedt
of the Sophi, and aflaflinated its chief. Two
of his fons, then in their cradle, were faved
among the Turks ; and the third was carried
into the mountains of Armenia, from whence
he foon glorioufly ilTued forth to avenge the
blood of his father, and to place the fed: of his
grandfather upon the throne of Perfia.
In this period, ChrilHanity alfo prefents the
reader with a fcene of trouble. The eaftern
church difappeared with the Greek empire ;
and the clergy chofe rather to fubmit to the
Turkilh yoke, than to that of Rome.
The Horm, which fr>on burfl: upon the weflern
church, began to gather in the fifteenth century.
In England, under the reign of Edward HI.
U 2 John
(3o8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
John WicklifF, a dodor of divinity in the uni-
verfity of Oxford, had the boldnefs to form the
defign of deftroying the overgrown power of
the clergy. Ihofe who preceded him in
the fame road, had made too much ufe of vain
declamation and blind Xeal. WicklifF formed
a connedled fyftem, and maintained it by un-
anfwerable logical arguments. He faid, " Why
does the biihop of Rome arrogate to himfelf a
power over his brethren? Though he be cal-
led head of the churchy yet, agreeably to fcrip-
ture and reafon, he has no power over his coU
legues in the miniftry of the gofpel. What
right have prelates to excommunicate the faith-
ful ? They fhould be fure that God has repro-
bated a man, before they excommunicate him.
The power of the minifters of religion is only
precarious ; nor Ihould they retain it any longer
than they are virtuous. The fupport given to
paflors is purely alms. The faithful may, and
ought to retire, when paftors behave unworthy
of their office." Chiefly, Wickliff was much
offended with the magnificence and pride of the
popes and bifnops. " Should the miniffers of
a poor and humble mafter," faid he " have gold
and fiWer, flaves, caftles, temporal power, w hich
they exercife like tyrants? Thefe horrid abufes
are imputed both to thofe who commit, and to
thofe who tolerate them. Princes, by taking
from the clergy thefe ufurpations, would but
ad
Lect. VL modern history. (309)
adt conformably to the intentions of the Divine
Legiflator.*' He alfo attacked the monaflic
orders, becaufe they robbed fociety of the facred
duties of its members, and plunged a part of
future generations in the gulph of celibacy.—
With refpedl to the dodlrines of the church of
Rome, he maintained, " That the facrament of
the holy fupper, contains neither the body nor
blood of Jefus Chrift; that it is nothing but a
pledge of his goodnefs and love, and a remem-
brancer of the blelTings of the gofpel ; that con-
fellion is an ufelefs ceremony ; that a (incere
repentance is the only thing that can render us
agreeable to the Supreme Being." WicklifF's
tenets are conformable to reafon and religion.
For a vvhile he durft broach them only in fecret ;
but the univerfity having come over to his fenti-
ments, he left Oxford to publifh his opinions
through England. His eloquence, learning,
and purity of morals, foon procured him a
number of difciples. The clergy were alarmed,
and the Englifh reformer was cited before the
primate's formidable tribunal. Powerful pro-
te(ftors ftood up for him; Edward III. gave
him fecret fupport, and the duke of Lancafter,
who governed during the minority of Richard
II. proteded him openly. Thus, notwith-
ftanding the thunder of the clergy, John Wick-
iiff continued to preach, to fix his dodrines in
England, and died in peace among his parifh-
U J ioners
(3IO) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
ioners of Lutterworth. Richard having afcend-
ed the throne, yielded to the pope's folicita-
tions; the bones of the venerable Wicklitf were
dug up and burnt, and his followers profcribed
and perfecuted. About the fame time, his
opinions found their way into another part of
Europe. A Bohemian gentleman, while ftu-
dying at Oxford, read and relifhed WickhfF's
books. Being returned to his own country, he
fliewed them to John Hus, and Jerome of
Prague, who immediately adopted the opinions
of the Oxford dodlor. Thefe are the two illuf-
trious friends who appeared before the council
of Conftance, proteded, as they thought, by the
emperor Sigifmond's fafe condud:; but the em-
peror (contrary to truth, religion, and honour)
broke his facred promife, and the council [en-
tenced their bodies to the flames ; but their
doclrines did not die with them. The barbar-
ous Sigifmond ufed tortures and death to no
purpofe, againfl the followers of Zifca. Thefe
fentiments remained concealed in the minds of
the Bohemians, and we fliall fee in the ne^t
period, this germe fprouting up, unfolding icfelf,
and producing a moft important revolution.
A variety of abfurd Roman Catholic feiflaries
fprang up in the period under review. For
inftanc^e, the Flagellants, who imagined baptifm
with water to be of no efhcacy, that flagellation
is neceffary, which imprints upon the body the
baptifm
L^CT. VL MODERN HISTORY. f 3 1 1 )
baptifm of blood. In confequence of this mif.
taken notion, thefe fanatics were fcen walking
in proceflion, half naked, with a cat-o-nine tails
in their hand, excoriating their bodies till the
blood dreamed down; and this in the moft
public places, with as much indecency as fury.
Then a fedl of perfectionifts, called Begards, ap-
peared, who, to be perfect, and live without fin,
made ufe of the moft abfurd and indecent
means. The Buchanites feem to have copied
fome of their abfurdities. The Dutch Picard,
who pretended to prove from the facred books,
that all women ihould be in common; fome
Francifcan monks, who boafted that St. Francis
had brought from heaven to earth, a more per-
fedl gofpel than that of Jefus Chrift; fome,
who obftinately maintained, that their food,
even when they made no ufe of it, belonged to
the pope ; others, who made their falvation de-
pend on a grey or black coat, on a gown more
or lefs large, on a capuchin more or lefs point-
ed. In thefe fools and madmen we have a
proof, how far the human mind can carry its
extravagances. They maintained their ridi-
culous opinions with an obftinacy hardly con-
ceivable. However, though more deferving of
pity than punifhment, they were expofed to all
the rage of perfecution ; fires were kindled in
all the kingdoms of Europe, and thoufands
were committed to the flames, for no other
U4 fault
(312) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
fault than having a diftempered brain. The
affair of the capuchin was the death of many
Cordeliers in Italy, Germany, and France ! Pope
John XXII faid gravely, that ihedifeafe could
be cured only by fire and fword. I'he mifer-
able Jews felt alfo the fury of the times ; they
were fliipped of their wealth, driven from the
place of their abode, harrafled wherever they
were found ; nay, often tortured to death, upon
frivolous pretexts, and hear-fay rumours. To
them was attributed the fudden death of princes;
they were faid to be the caufe of epidemical
difeafes ; that they ufed forcery and witchcraft;
that they poifoned fountains and wells, ridicu-
led the confecrated elements, and facrificed
Chriftian children. Thefe abfurd calumnies
were made a handle of to infiid every kind of
cruelty upon the unfortunate Jews. The Jews
were an induftrious people; they were thought
to be rich, and the great men, both clergy and
laity, ftirred up the people againfl: the dcfcend-
ants of Abraham, that they might find their gain
in their deftru6lion.
The abolition of the order of knights templar
was the mofl remarkable event in this period.
Nine hundred knights were burnt at two judi-
cial fittings ; the grand maflcr, and the brother
of a fovereign prince, were confumed in the
flames. The folemn judicial procedure carried
on againfl this order, under the direciion of
Philip
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (3 13)
Philip the Fair, and pope Clement V. a crowd
of witnelFes who became their accufers ; the
confeflion of many of the accufed themfelves;
all chefe circumftances joined together, feemed
to prove the heinous crimes laid to their charge,
and ferved as a pretext for the feverities inflict-
ed on them. However, many reafons may be
alledged in favour of their innocence. The
knights Templar, like the free-mafons of mo-
dern times, might have a form of initiation pe-
culiar to the order, and it being partly military,
and partly religious, their ceremonies would be
ofthe fame complexion. The world was not ac-
quainted with their ceremonies of admiffion. —
And, when a fociety tranfadls all its affairs with
very great fecrecy ; when it will not allow any
to gain the lead knowledge of them till after
becoming a member; thofe who wifh to know
their fecrets, but cannot, are apt to load them
with falfe imp^itations. The free-mafons are
branded with holding impious and abfurd cere-
monies and maxims ; but it is only by thofe who
are ignorant of the plan upon which they pro-
ceed. In the fame manner, the knights Templar
had horrid impieties imputed to them. They
were accufed of obliging candidates for admif-
fion into their order, to abjure Chridianity ; to
worfhip a gijfilded head, elevated on four feet ;
to commit with others, and allow others to
commit with them, that crime, the very men-
tion
(314) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
tion of which makes the blood run cold ; a crime,
the elFedl of a heart defperately wicked. We
need not doubt but that rich and powerful
monks, were covetous, unjuft, given to fenfual
pleafure; that they united in themfeives, the
debauchery and cruelty of the warrior, and the
monk's infatiable paflion for gain. But we can-
not believe that, gentlemen would have entered
into an order, where fuch fhocking infamies
had pafTed into a law. The confeflion of fome
of thofe unfortunate perfons proves nothing at
all ; for it is well known that the fear of tor-
ture, or the hope of life, have often forced the
innocent to plead guilty ,- but it has alfo beeri
fecn, that thofe who were guilty of this weaknefs,
retraced in the moment of death. The grand
mafter's declaration of the innocence of his or-
der, was certainly of great weight, if we attend
to the circumftances in which he made it. The
judges would have had this venerable old man
publicly to acknowledge himfelf guilty, on con-
dition of pardon ; but John de Molay, and Guy,
brother to the Dauphin of Auvergne, folemnly
protelled the innocence of their order, and died,
calling down the vengeance of heaven upon their
unjufl judges. What is certain, is, that they
fuifered the mod cruel tortures, and their fpoils
-were divided among their perfecutors. Mod of
the lands belonging to this order were given to
the knights Hofpitaller, called then the knights
of
Lect.VI. modern history. (315)
of Rhodes. The kings of Caftile and Arragon
feized on what belonged to them in their domini-
ons, and gave a part to the knights of Calatrava.
Philip the Fairgot two hundred thoufand livres;
and we may eaiily believe that the pope would
not forget himfelf in the divifi^n.
General fpirit of the \ ^th and 15/^ centuries,—*
The fpirit of this period, was not that of found
philofophy and religion. A narrow, fuperfti-
tious, and abfurd turn of mind was not confined
to the common people ; but men eminent for
dignity, men diftinguifhed for knowledge, even
whole focieties, ocherwife refpecflable for their
underftandmg, were ftrongly tindiured with the
prejudices of the times. The approach of a
ftorm determined the great Edward to make
peace, becaufe he confidered it to be the threat-
ening of heaven. A prodigy of a fimilar nature
prevented -Charles V. from loading his people
with a rigorous and unjufl: tax. Philip the Long,
wiflied to know if his wife was faithful to him,
and if the prince were really his fon. He fent
to confult a Flemifh woman, efteemed a pro-
phetef*, and her anfwer quieted the king. A
certain bifnop of thofe days, celebrated for his
knowledge, faid gravely, that there were certain
nuns fo familiarized with devils, that they faw
and touched them without the lead fear. The
parliament of Paris condemned the wife and
daughter of a nobleman to be burnt, for having
dealt
(3i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
dealt in witchcraft. Pope John XXII. having
difcovered a confpiracy againfi his life^ demand-
ed of the countefs de Foix, a piece of a fnake,
which wasfaid to be a fovereign antidote againfi
poifon. We find in the letters of this pope, a de-
tail of many kinds of witchcraft pradifed in his
time, and in which he had the moil implicit
faith.* *
Sciences. — The bold and enterprifing genius
of the Portuguefe made rapid progrefs in the
fcience of navigation. They difcovered to
Europe the ifland of Madeira, thofe of Cape
Verd, and the Coall of Guinea; failing along
the African (hore, they traverfed that immenfc
continent which extends from the llraits of
Gibraltar to beyond Zara ; they put an end to
the prejudices which till then, had retarded the
progrefs of navigation. Hitherto the mariner's
compafs had not been ufed in voyages to the
weft or fouth. The Europeans imagined that
to the weft lay an ocean unfathomable, and with-
out bounds ; or a planifphere, the extremity of
which terminated in an endlefs precipice. They
believed, that thofe who fail fouthwards arc
obliged continually to afcend, till they arrive at
the line; that beyond che line there is a rapid
defcent,
* The plillofopliy of the eighteenth century, and jull viewi
of religion, have exploded the dodlrine of witches and witch-
Crafty none but a few of the ignorant vulgar believe in it, and
fqme fuch there always will be in the moli enlightened age.
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (317)
defccnt, which at once hurries them into a tre-
mendous ab) fs. With them, the torrid zone was
uninhabitable, the feas almofl: dried up, or boil-
ing with the heat of the fun. The reader'knows
with what dexterity and perfevering induflry,
Henry of Portugal overcame the prejudices of
that unenlightened age.
The progrefs of navigation increafed com-
merce. Liibon became the richeft emporium
in Europe. The Venetians, Genoefe, and Flo-
rentires traded in the Levant, and the Hans-
towns in the northern feas. England began to
fhew a marine, and- her wool was already a
coniiderable article of exportation. The towns
in the Low Countries were famed for their ma-
nufactures of cloths, camlets, and arras.
The univerfities continued to flourifh. — Ox-
ford was difiinguillied for theology, Bologna
for civil law, Montpellier for medicine, and
the univeriity of Paris, where all thefe fciences
flourifhed, was efleemed the firft in Europe.
— Hiflorians fay, that twenty thoufand ftu-
dents, domeftic and foreign, have been in that
univerfity at one time. The redor of the uni-
veriity had the honours of a prince of the blood
beflowed upon him ,- his deputies fat in the
flates general, had a right to remonftrate in the
king's prefence, and their oppofition was con-
fidered of great importance. However, the
fcience of theology, as taught in thefe univerfi-
ties.
(31 S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
tics, was very far from being ufeful. The mofl
obfcure and puerile queftions employed the
time of the graved dodors. Whether the Vir-
gin Mary conceived our blelTcd Lord with or
/w ithout original lin, was a queflion agitated by
f the learned for half a century. It was made a
: queflion, whether or not the blood uhich iffued
from the fide of Jefus Chrifl, during his paflion,
continued united to his divinity. The beatific
vifion was alfo an objedl of difpute ; and John
: XXII. was treated as a Heretic, by the univer-
lit) of Paris, for having maintained that, the
faints fhall not enjoy the immediate viiion of
God till after the day of judgment.
Jurifprudence fupported itfelf in Italy, by
the talents of Durand and Francis Aretin; in
England by thofe of Lyttleton and Horn, and
in France by Cugniers and Raoul. Medicine
made very little progrefs in this period. An
Italian revived it a little about the end of the
fifteenth century. Chemillry made a more
rapid advance: Raymond Lully and Nicholas
Flamel, were celebrated chemifts, and conlider-
ably improved this fcience. MuUer, a Ger-
man, tranflated the Almagefl of Ptolemy into
Latin, and difpellcd in part, the darknefs which
co^^ered the fcience of aftronomy. Tadics be-
gan to be taught, and the military art was redu-
ced to principles. Charles the Rafh, duke of
Burgundy, brought about this revolution. AH
the
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (319)
the hiflorians of thofe days, dealt much in the
marvellous, though we find in them, (this ex-
cepted) feveral valuable qualities-
While the fciences in general were fo very
flow in their motion; while true natur/il philo-
fophy was wholly unknown, and found moral
philofophy buried under a heap of fuperftitious
errors, the Belles-Lettres took, all at once, a rapid
flight. The fages of Greece, who cultivated
polite learning, terrified at the continual florms
to which their country v;as expofed, by the
ambition of princes, the fanaticifm of priefls,
and the victories of the Turks, fought an afylum
in Italy, where, in peace, they might purfue
the pleafures of fludy. Thefe foreigners, who
wiflied to gain efteem by being ufeful, opened
fchools, taught the Greeek and Latin languages,
and, by bringing their pupils acquainted with
the writings of the great men of ancient Rome
and Athens, gave birth to a tafle for polite lite-
rature, which had been, for many centuries, un-
known in Europe. Thefe fchools foon produ-
ced many, who wrote with purity and elegance
in the languages of Demofthenes and Cicero.
But the Italians, befides cultivating the learned
languages, applied themfelves alfo to polifli
their own, and fome firfl- rate geniufl^es, carried
it to a high degree of perfection : fuch were
Dante, Francis Petrarch, and Boccace. France
admired the learning and talle of Italy, and ufed
fomc
(320) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
fome efforts to tranfplant thefe into a French
foil ; but her efforts were not fuccefsful ; the
French language continued barbarous, notwith-
Itanding the produdlions of fome Frenchmen of
tafte.
The fouth of France continued to cultivate
the Provcngal tongue; Thouloufe was the centre
of wit and genius ; and in that city was founded
the firft academy in Europe, which became a
model to many others. The induflry of Bury of
Angerville, and the produdions of the poet
Chaucer, revived a tafte for letters in England.
Painting, fculpture, and architedlure, conti-
nued to flourifh in Italv. Cimabue, who
founded the fchool of Florence, made many ex-
cellent painters, particularly Leonard de Vinci,
who, himfelf, formed the greateft mafters in the
art. Anthony de Meflina was the firft Italian
that painted in oil ; and Bellin, who flole the
fecret from him, laid the foundation of the
Venetian fchool; and the two Van-Eiks did the
fame honour to their country, by founding the
Flemifh fchool. Tada, Pizani, Donato, were
celebrated Italian fculptors. — Nicholas de Pifa
adorned Florence with thofe famous quays,
wafhedby the river, and ornamented with the
flatues of thofe who had been benefactors, either
to the city or architecft ; and Calendrio drew
the plan of the palace of St. Mark in Venice.
The mariner's compafs was found out about
the
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (321/
the end of the thirteenth century, and to this
very ufeful difcovery is owing, the aftonifhing
pogrefs which Navigation and geography have
made. With the compafs, and needle properly
pointed, the mariner can explore his route, fail
in unknown feas, and viiit the moft diftant parts
of the globe. It was in the courfe of this
period, that a filverfmith in Florence found
out the art of engraving. To all thefe difco-
veries we may add, the renewal of the art of
engraving in flone, which had been loft for more
than ten centuries; the invention of fpedlacles,
the eftablifhment of pofts, of bills of exchange^
and above all, the invention of gunpowder, for
which, Europe is indebted to Berthold Schuarti
a German Cordelier.
Tamerlane. — Tamerlane, or Timour, a' de-
fcendant of Gengifkan, was born in Ufbec Tar-
tary, 1357, of the Chriftian sera. He became
a famous conqueror. Not born heir to a king-
dom, nor himfelf a prince, he fubdued as many
different nations as Alexander or Gengifkan. — *
Having conquered Perfia and India, he, upon
his return, attacked Syria, and took Damafcus,
In the career of conqueft, the Greek emperor^
who had in vain made application to the Chrif-
tian princes of Europe, requefted his affiftance
againft Bajazet. And five Mahometan princes,
whom Bajazet had ftripped of their dominions,
made application to the Tartar at the fame
time^
% X Tamer*
(222) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VI.
Tamerlane granted their requeft ; but, con-*
formable to the rights of nations, he fent am-
balTadors to Bajazet, to defire him to raife the
fiege of Conftantinople, and to do juftice ta
thofe whom he had difpollelfed of their domi-
nions. Bajazet received Tamerlane's propo--
fals with anger and contempt. The Tartar
prince declared war, and marched againft the
Turk. Bajazet having raifed the liege of Con-
flantinople, fet out to meet Tamerlane. The
two warriors met between Caefarea and Ancyra^
where was fought one of the moft memorable
battles recorded in hiftory.
Tamerlane's veterans, accuflomed to conquer j>-
afteramofl obftinate difpute, defeated Bajazet's
army : an army which had been vicftorious over
the troops of the moft warlike European princes^
It is probable that the Tartars and Turks both,
made ufe of artillery in this battle. Muftapha>
Bajazet's eldeft fon was killed, fighting by his.
fide, and he, with another of his fons, called
Mufa, were taken prifoners.
The Turkifh annals fay, that Tamerlane ihut
up Bajazet in an iron cage, and that the Turk-
ifti fultans never marry, becaufe the Tartar of-
fered an indecency to Bajazet's wife.- Such-
fables cannot be reconciled to that generofity,
which even the Turks thcm.felves attribute ta
Tamerlane. They relate, that the conqueror,,
being at Burfa, in Bithynia, wrote a letter to-
Solyma%
Lect. VL modern history, (jij)
Solyman, the Ton of Bajazet, in the ftyle of a
true hero. ** I wpuld forget/' fays Tamerlane^
*' that I have been Bijazet's enemy. I will
fave alive the father to his children, fo be that
they wait the effecfl:s of my clemency. The
Gonqueds I have made are enough for me, and
the new favours of inconflant fortune do not
tempt me/'— But not having received an an-
fwer from Solyman, he made Mufa fultanj
"receive/' faid he, " the heritage of thy father ;
a royal foul knows how to conquer kingdoms^
and how to give them away."
Tamerlane's conquefls were near as extenfive
as thofe of Gengiikan. He miade Samarcand
the feat of empire. There hs received the
homage of many tributary Aliatic princes^ and
ambaifadors from many fovereigns. To cele-
brate his conquers, Tamerlane, in imitation of
Gengifkan, gave a triumphant feaft, about the
beginning of the, fifteenth century, in all the
pomp of Barbaric magnificence. Every order
ofperfons in his dominions, all artizans, each
with the enfigns of their profellion, palTed in
review before him. And ail the young men
and maidens were joined together in marriage,
according to their liking, the fame day^ Ta-
merlane, died at an advanced age^ after a reign
of thirty-fix years. Happier than Alexander
in the duration of his life on earth, and in the
number of his children; but inferior to the
X 2 Macedonian
(J24) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
Macedonian hero, in that Tamerlane deflroyed
nnany cities, but built none. Tamerlane was a
Heathen, but of tolerant principles; he allow-
ed every one to worfhip God in his own way,
wifely thinking, that none fhould be perfecuted
for confcience fake. Tamerlane was illiterate,
but gave his children a learned education. The
famous Oulougbeg, who fucceeded him, found-
ed an academy of fciences at Samarcand, caufed
the dimenfions of the earth to be taken, and
eompofcd aflronomical tables. At prefent
Samarcand has loft its former grandeur, together
with the fciences. The country of the Ulbec
Tartars is again become barbarous and uncivili-
zed.
ne Turks, — The Turks did not conform
themfelves to the religion and manners of the
vanquifhed; they would not change Mahomet-
anifm for Chriilianity, nor lay afide the laws and
cuftoms to which they had been ufed in their
conquells. In the diftribution of the conquer-
ed lands, they attended to the feudal afibciation,,
fo as to preferve military fervice; nor have
they hitherto departed from this fyftem. The
Greeks who live under the Turkifli government,,
are in a ftate of opprefTion, but not altogether
Haves. They enjoy their own religion and
laws. But Greece, once the country of heroes^
of great men in every art and fcience, is become
fearbarous under the military government of the
Turks>
Lect. VI. MODERN HISTORY. (325)
Turks, Co that, in qualifications and chara6ler,
the modern Greeks are the very reverfe of the
ancient.
The Turks enjoy freedom under their mili-
tary government, but freedom much inferior to
that of Britons. There are among them no dif-
tindion of ranks, but that which arifes from their
employments. Their manners are fierce,
haughty, and effeminate ; and their pride excef-
five. To their ignorance mud be imiputed the
contempt they entertain of other nations. The
Turkifh fuitan is a defpot, but liable, upon a re-
verfe of fortune, to be dethroned and butchered
by an enraged foldiery. Fear is a greater check
upon the Turkifli emperors, than the laws of the
Alcoran. Abfolute in his feraglio, mafter of the
lives of thofe who fill the departments of ftatc,
he muft fubmit to the cuftoms of the empire.
He cannot increafe the taxes, nor dare he touch
the public money. A Turkifh fuitan, is an indo-
lent, pampered, idle mortal. The cares of go-
vernment devolve upon the Grand Vilier, or firft
minifter of (late, and the bowftring, or banifh-
ment, is often the reward of his labours. The
Turks entertain a very high veneration for the
race of Ochman. Many of the reigning erri-
perors have been dethroned and put to death ;
but there never was an example of the crown
having pailed into another family : therefore,
the internal conftitution has nothing to fear
X 3 from
(326) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
from a revolution in favour of a (Irano-er. The
Othman empire was eftabliflied by flrength
and rapine, and the quarrels of Chriflian prmce^
have hitherto contributed to fupport it. The
Turks were long an uncivilized people, attach-*
ed to fa ^ age cufroms ; but their manners, lince
the commencement of the prefent century,
have become more refined. Their commiercial
intercourfe with the Englilh, French, and other
European nations, has civilized the Turks, and
refined their tafte. The Othman empire ap-
pears to be on the decline. Surrounded with
powerful neighbours, the emperor of Germany
on one fide, and the emprefs of RufTia on the
other; thefe have an eye to the fertile Turkifh
provinces of Europe, and wifli to polfcfs them.
With this view, they every now and then feek
occafion to quarrel with the Porte, that they
may, with greater fhew of ju (lice, feize her ter-
ritories. Without doubt the Turkifh govern-
ment has loft its energy, and her foldicrs feem
deftitute of that martial courage, for which
they were once famed. Probably the period
may not be far diftant, when Conftantinople
will be again in the pofTcfTion of the Chriffians.
When a nation has loft that internal force,
which preferves all the wheels of government
in proper motion, her diffolution cannot be
prevented, either by the warrior, or ftatefman.
Wc
Lect. VI. modern history. (327)
We have already obferved, that thofe who
left Conftantinople and took fhelter in the weft:,
revived learning there, and gave the Europeans
a tafte for the beauties of the Greek tongue.
The (ludy of this language was introduced into
England in i49f, by one William Grocyn, and
taught publicly by him at Oxford. The in-
creafe of commerce in the fifteenth century,
tended to promote the civilization of fociety in
Europe, particularly in Italy. The trade to the
Eaft Indies, was then in the hands, of the Vene-
tian^i, and of Cofmo Medicis, who Ihared it with
them. While the nations of Europe continued
unconnedted with each other, they were barbar-
ous and ignorant ; but knowledge and refine-
ment were the confequence of their commercial
intercourfe.
Of the many caufes which contributed to en-
lighten and civilize mankind, the invention of
printing has, perhaps, done moft this v/ay. —
The art of printing was difcovered in the year
1440, at Strafburgh, by one John Gu teem berg,
and brought to perfed:ion by one John Fault
and Schelfer of Mentz. Laurence Kofler of
Harlaem had already printed, by engraving
entire pages on wood, after; the manner of the
Chinefe; but Guttemberg invented cut metal
types, which were made perfed by Peter
Schelfer. William Caxton introduced into
England, in J 474, the art of printing with metal
X 4 types.
(328) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
types. The invention of printing appeared .
to the world fo extraordinary, that thofe who
firfl: exhibited fpecimens of it, were thought to
have done it by the power of magic. The
vulgar, always ignorant, and who judge by what
they fee, confider a perfon who has fnewa in^
genuity in any furprifing invention or difcovery,
as having more art than his own.
The art of printing is one of the greateft
bleflings heaven has beftowed upon mankind.
The liberty of theprefs is, to a free nation, the
palladium of her liberties. By means of print-
ing, every branch of ufeful knowledge is con-
veyed to the public ; and we can procure, at a
fmall expence, by the fame means, proper in-
formation on any fubjedl, for the right improve-
ment and conduct of life. More efpecially, the
invention of printing has, by means of the
fcripturcs, printed in the vulgar tongue, diffufed
among Chriflians the knowledge of true reli-
gion, unadulterated by the comments and tra-
ditions of fallible men. It is faid, that printing
may equally ferve as the vehicle of truth, or of
error. True, this is an inconvenience, but an
inconvenience greatly overbalanced by the ma-
ny advantages refulting from it. Ignorance
multiplies errors, whereas knowledge is the
way to know and confute them. If wdth the
affiftance of books we attain knowledge but by
flow degrees; without thefe helps we would
flill
Lect. VL MODERN HISTORY. (329J
flill have been unable to diftinguifh truth from
error. The beft things may be abufed, nay-
are often abu fed; but this is no conclufive argu-
ment againll; their ufefulnefs. Since the inven-
tion of printing, the principles of philofophy,
of morals, and religion have been communicated
to the world, a very great advantage to the
caufe of humanity, and to the progrefs of true
learning and fcience.
The invention of gunpowder produced a great
change in the military art. From the time of
this invention, and that of mufquets, infantry
became the moil ufeful part of an army, upon
whom the fuccefs of a battle depended.
Cavalry were no longer formidable ; the knights
who fought on horfeback were not fo much
diflinguiihed, nor could they do much execu-
tion, cafed as they were in heavy iron armour.
Befides, to reward the foldier of merit, orders
of knighthood were eftablilhed in England,
France, and Germany ; thefe orders proved the
downfal of ancient chivalry. — To be the com-
panions of thefe orders was flattering to human
vanity, and by them, kings increafed their autho-
rity.
It could not be expeifled, after fo many ages
of ignorance and barbarity, that the nations of
Europe, could all at once, attain to extenfive
knowledge of men and things, to rational, be-
nevolent, and pure manners. Princes had not
made
(330) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VL
madeanyconfiderableprogrefsinpolitical know-
ledge. They were perfidious and deceitful.
They fported with things facred and prophane;
treaties were converted by them into fnarcs to
entrap their enemies, and they endeavoured to
hurt under the difguife of friendfhip. They
made ufe of poifon and aflafTmation to deflroy
thofe whom they difliked. Strange ! that the
human mind, with a higher degree of civiliza-
tion than it had hitherto known, (hould have
fubi^"ituted vices more refined, but no lefs per-
nicious than the moft brutal. The reafon
feems to be this, mens minds were not under
the influence of found reafon : fenfibility, hu-
manity, and benevolence, had not yet acquired
the afcendency, and the manners of the public
were formed upon thofe of the courts of princes,
where often, the 'moft infamous means are
thought juftifiable, to accomplifh what is judg-
ed to be of advantage.
The trade and manu failures of England made
fome progrefs in the period under review. In
proof of this we are told, that the Englifh had
it in contemplation to make a navigation adl,
^s the moR proper means to fecure to them-
felves the right of carrying their own merchan-
dize. Richard II L encouraged commerce and
manufadlures. To him the Englifh are indebt-
ed for fome of their befl: laws, and particularly,
for the appointment of confuls to fuperintend
their
Lect. VL modern history. (23 1 )
their •commerce in foreign countries. Henry
VII. was the firft Englifh monarch, who did any
thing towards the eR^blifhment of a ftanding
arm.y, by the inflitution of what is called the
yeomen of the guard. He gave the final blow
to feudal tenures, by an acft palTed in his reign,
called Mortmain adl ; by this acft, any perfon of
landed property was enabled to fell or mort-
gage his lands without the payment of any fine.
The following obfervation lliall conclude
this ledlure. Nations proceed by flow degrees
from ignorance to knowledge, from rudenefs
to refinement, and laws and government cannot
be fettled in the midft of turbulency and dif-
order, But when a people have been fortunate
in their political eflablifhments, fo as thereby
to fecure their rights, and fuccefsful in their
purfuits of induftry, they fhould be careful of
there h^/-fllnj^s, by a proper ufe of them.
LECTURE
(332) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII,
LECTURE VII.
A General View of the Sixteenth Century — Politi-
cal Events — Reformation — Confequences of the
Difcovtry of America — Governments — Legijla-
tion — Manners — Navigation and Commerce —
Sciences — Polite Literature — Pine Arts,
General View, i^c. — HpHE fixtcenth century,
-■- "Called, by way of emi*
nence, Seculum Reformatuniy or the age of dif-
covery, prefents the reader with events truly
grand; with events hitherto unknown in any
former age of the world. Europe, after long
and violent convulfions, began to fettle, and the
din of war to give place to the mild voice of
peace. States enjoyed an internal tranquillity,
the work of a more enlightened legillation. —
Commerce, extended by navigation, united
nations, and political views ftrengthened the
union which interefl had formed. The manners
of fociety vifibly refined, the fine arts were pro-
greflive to perfedtion, and the fciences began
to penetrate that thick covering, which igno-
rance had thrown over them for near fifteen
centuries. Such happy revolutions could not
fail to produce an age, fruitful in great events.
Hence
Lect. VIT. modern history, (333)
Hence the iixteenth century was, perhaps, the
mod aflonifhing age of any that has exifled
lince the creation of the world. When we at-
tend to thofe princes who then reigned in
Europe, we difcover names highly dignified,
cither by the renown which they themfelves
acquired, or by the condud: they obferved, or
by the great revolutions of which they were the
caufe. At Conftantinople we behold a Selim,
who united Syria and Egypt to the Othman
empire, and put an end to the reign of the
Mamalucks, who had been in poffcfTion of the
laft-mentioned kingdom fince the thirteenth
century. After him we behold his fon, the great
Solyman, who advanced as far as Vienna, was
crowned king of Perfia in Bagdad, the city of
the ancient caliphs, and fpread terror through
Europe and Afia.
We behold, at the fame time, Guiiavus Vafa
in the north, who broke the Danifn yoke, under
which the Swedes had long groaned, and who,
being chofen king of Sweden, the avenger and
deliverer of which he had been, rendered it flou-
rifhing, civilized it, and, by one of the moft
important and difficult revolutions, fixed the
grandeur of his country. In Rulfia, John
Bazilowitz, who refcued his country from bemg
tributary to the Tartars, deferves to be ranked
in the number of the greatefl princes ; becaufe,
though a barbarian, and his fubjedls ftill more
barbarouS;,
(334) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
barbarous, he was the avenger of his country^
and from that moment Mufcovy began to figure
among the kingdoms of Europe.
In Spain, Germany, and Italy, we behold the
famous Charles V. who, fovereign of thefe
countries under different ti.les, fupported the
burden of Europe, was always in adtion oi*
negotiation checked the progrefs of the Turks,
made kings, and at lall:, after having long
troubled the repofe of Europe, abdicated his
crowns iu favour of his fon Philip IL retired
from the world, and fpent the remainder of his
days in ad:s of religious devotion.
In France, Francis I. the rival of Charles V«
though lefs fortunate, was neverthlefs a great
charadler* Glory attended his fteps. Great in
misfortunes, he obtained the efteem of nations
by* his bravery, and amiable qualities, and im^
mortalized his name by his love for the fine arts^
which he tranfplanted from Italy into France*
Henry VIII. kingof England, notwithftandmg
his cruelties and caprices, mud be ranked
among the celebrated princes of the fixteenth
century. During his reign, a memorable revo-
lution took place in the genius, manners, and
religion of the £nglifli, and Great Britain
learned under him, to hold the balance of power
between the fovereigns of Europe. At the
name of pope Leo X. the intelligent reader will
recal to mind an age celebrated tor the arts, and
for
Lect.YII. modern history. (33s7
for that great revolution, which, under him^
took place in the wcflern church.
It was in the iixteendi century that Afia,
Africa, and Europe experienced at the fame
time, a change in the Chriftian and Mahometan
religions. The fchifm of Omar and Ali was
completed ; the Perfians acknowledging the
fame God, and the fame prophet, fcparated from
the Turks. A feparation alfo took place among.
Chriflians, and the half of Europe fliook oif the
galling yoke of the Romifli pontiffs.
While the ant lent world was (haken with civil
and religious commotions, a new m orld was dif-
covered by the immortal Chriflopher Colum-
bus; the Ihips and arms of Portugal cflablilhed
an immenfe commerce between the Eaft Indies
and Europe. Here, the powerful empire of
Mexico was conquered by Fernando Cortcz,
while Pizzaro, with a handfuLof foldiers, made
himfelf mafler of Peru : " there, Albuquerque,
notwithdanding. the oppolitiorv of the inhabi-
tants, and the efforts of muffulmen, then in
poffeffion of the trade of the ead, eftabliihed the
power and commerce of Portugal in the IndieSo
The number of extraordinary men which
every where 2j)peared, particularly in Italy,
gives us a very high idea of the age under review.
But v/hat adonifnes Rill more, is, to fee the
manners of men take a milder turn, and fociet/
become more civilized, notwithftanding the
many
f336) MODERN HISTORY. Lect* VII.
n^any v/ars produced by ambition, and the
bloody quarrels occafioned by religion. That
happy genius which naade the arts flourifh in
Rome, Naples, Florence, and Venice, diifufed
light through, Europe, and gave a finer polifli
to the manners of fociety.
At the beginning of the fixteenth century,
the cities of Italy were the moft fuperb in the
world, beautified with the moft magnificent
public and private buildings. That country
was the centre of learning and tafle. The Ita-
lian princes, and great men, loved and cherifhed
the progrefs of the human mind. — —Innocent
VIIL an old man, refpedlable for his virtues,
died, and the infamous Borgia, known by the
name of Alexander VI. made ufe of the moil
w icked means to get into the pontifical chair.
The empire, divided into feven electorates^
befides a number of ecclefiaflical and fecular
principalities, w^as flill a refpedable body, not-
withflanding the lofs of the north of Italy. —
Frederick IV. chief of the houfe of Auflria, be-
fides being emperor, pofTefTed confiderable do-
minions.— Maximilian, his fon, became pof-
fefTed of the rich eflates of the dukes of Burgun-
dy ; but with all thefe advantages united in this
houfe, thefe two princes performed nothing
worthy of notice. The indolent Frederick fa-
crificed every thing to timoroufnefs and a love
of repofe. Maximilian, though bold, ambiti-
OUSji
Lect. VIL modern history. (337)
bus, and delirous of glory, was vain and impru-
dent, without oeconomy, and too inconftant in
the profecution of his deligns.
France was fubmiilive and tranquil. — The
great fiefs annexed to the crown, the deftruclion
of the feudal government, the eftablifliment of
tribunals, the feverity of the laws againft op-
preflion and opprefTors, the troops paid by the
exchequer, and who knew no orders but thofe of
the king, the right of fixing the taxes, which
the king enjoyed; all thefe advantages would
have made Charles VI 1 1, a \cry powerful fo-
vereign, had he poffefTed the political abilities
of his father.
Spain was united under Ferdinand and Ifabella,
The expulfion of the Moors, the pofTeflion of
many iflands in the Mediterranean, the character
of Ferdinand and Ifabella, made the Spanilh
power very confiderable. Spain had her finances
under proper regulation, her lieets were well
equipped, her troops were numerous, and, owing
to her long difputes with the Moors, were made
perfed in the art of war. — Ferdinand I. the
fon of Alphonfo the Magnanimous, reigned in
Naples; a weak and vicious prince; defpifed
by foreigners, who afpired to his throne, and
abhorred by his fubjecls, who wiflied for a re-
volution. Peter de Medicis reigned in Florence,
and by his imperious conduct, increafed the jea-
loufy and difguft of his fellow citizens. They
Y fecretly
(33 5 ) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
fecretly planned a change which might rellorc
liberty to the republic, and they waited only a
favourable opportunity to fhake off the yoke.—
To the north of the ecclefiaflical ftate, many
petty fovereignties were ufurped from the Sec
of Rome. Herculus D'Ffte governed wifely in
Modena and Ferrara ; Francis Gonzagua, cele-
brated for his military talents, reigned in Man-
tua ; a branch of the family of the Paleologi,
formerly emperors of Conftantinople, pofTeffed
the principality of Montferrat. The dukes of
Savoy, by the acquilition of Piedmont, and flill
more by their politics, had a good deal of in-
fluence in the affairs of Europe. — Pifa was fub-
jeA to Florence, and the Genoefe, obliged to
yield to the yoke of Milan, had ceafed to be the
rival of Venice. The duchy of Milan, by the ac-
quifition of Genoa, and the ufurpation of Parma
and Placentia, formed a confiderable power.
Francis Sforza, the ba;ftard of a foldier of for-
tune, had wrefled that fine country from the
princes of the houfe of Orleans, defcended from
the Vifconti, the lawful heir. Lodowick Sforza,
a wicked and defigning man, then held the reins
of government, which he had ufurped from
young Galeas, his nephew.
Venice beheld herfelf at the pinnacle of glory;
and the means which contributed to raife her to
the high rank fhe then held, were her commerce,
the mofl extenlive of any nation ; her politics,
which
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (339)
which took advantage of all the movements of
her neighbours ; her formidable armies, and
chiefly her fleets, which alone were a match for
the Othman naval power. — The Swifs, whom a
noble enthuiiafm for liberty, had made perfedt
in the military art, guarded the northern paffes
of Italy, and their alliance was eagerly courted
by the greatefl: princes of Europe.
Eno;land was freed from the internal convuU
fions, which the animofities of the houfes of
York and Lancafler had been the caufe of.—
Henry VJI. the firft of the family of Tudor, a
wife and politic prince, after having, by his
firm and prudent condudl, crufhed the many
factions which difl:urbed the firfl: years of his
reign, took advantage of the fucceeding calm to
attend to the movements of his neighbours.
Navarre and Scotland were united with France
by inclination and interefb. John Albert, who
dreaded an attack from Ferdinand of Spain, had
nothing but the protection of France to depend
on. James IV. of Scotland, too weak to with-
fland the Englifh, was obliged to feek afrifl:ance
from the fame quarter. It admits of a doubt,
if Scotland's connedlion with France was the
refult of found politics ? However that may be,
one thing is fure, that the Scotch often aflifled
the French, by making diverfions into England
in their favour ; but it does not appear that the
Scotch ever received any material afliftaace from
Ya the
(340j MODERN HISTORY. Lsct. VIL
the French. — John IL king of Portugal, while
his neighbours were hofiile to one another, was
wholJy taken up with the care of making new
difcoveries.
John of Oldenburgh had then united the three
kingdoms of the north; but Stephen Sture flilt
preferved great authority in Sweden, and the
troubles which he kept in continual motion,
were the prefage of a near and glorious revolu-
tion.— Ladiflaus Jagellon, king of Bohemia and
Hungary, could neither repel the enemy, who
continually laid wafte his frontiers, nor rule
his fubjedls, who obeyed him with reludtance.
Albert Jagellon, the fon of the great Caiimir,
and the brother of Ladillaus, who reigned in
Poland, was continually at blows with the
Turks and Ruffians.
Bajazet II. the unworthy fucceifor of the he-
roes of the Othman family, w^as upon the throne
of Conflantinople ; while his brother Zizim,
more worthy of a fceptre, was wandering in
Europe, the fport of the caprice of Chriftian
princes. — The Tartars governed in Perfia, the
Mamalucks in Egypt, and the reft of Africa was
fubjed: to many fcherifs or princes, who ac-
knowledged as their chief the emperor of Mo-
rocco, under the title of Miramolin. Such was
the lituation of Europe at the beginning of the
fixteenth century. Let us now take a curfory
^iew of political events in their order.
Political
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (341)
Political events. — Italy firH: attracfcs our notice.
■ — Lodowick Sforza, who had ufurped a tyraa-
jiical authority in Milan, wiflied to deprive
young Galcas, his nephew, of his titles and life ;
but dreading the vengeance o^ the king of
Naples, v»hof€ daughter Galeas had married;
afraid of the Medicis, conneCled with young
■Sforza ; (landing in awe of the dukes of Savoy,
who wiflied to check his ambition, and that
of Borgia, who had been eleded pope, by the
name of Alexander VI. he, to get over all
thefe difficulties fo oppofite to his criminal
deiigns, refolved to kindle -war in Italy, and to
ruin his enemies by a powerful king. In confe-
quence of this refolution, he made choice of
Charles VIII. king of France, and invited him
to the conquefl of Naples, a kingdom wrefled
from the houfe of Anjou,of which Charles was
the lawful heir. Charles, dazzled with the
idea of fo valuable a conqueft, prepared to put
k in execution. He engaged Henry VII. with
a fum of money not to traverfe his defigns ;
and the imprudent Charles, with the fame view,
yielded to ibe ambitious Ferdinand of Caftile,
the provinces of Cerdagne and Rouffillon, while
he contented himfelf with the promife of a
man, who was never famed for keeping his word.
Ten thoufand Swifs, taken into pay, increafed
his army, which, by the time he arrived at
Lyons, was very numerous, by the concourfe of
Y 3 nobility.
(342) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
nobility, who wifhed to fignalize their valour.
Scarcely was Charles arrived in the Milanefe,
when the barbarous Lodowick, certain of pro-
tedlion, which difpelled his fears, deflroyed
young Galeas by poifon, and wrefted the fceptre
from his infant fon. The French king, intox-
icated with his projedl, overlooked the crime
perpetrated by his ally» and marched to Tufcany,
were he defeated Peter de Medicis, and obliged
him to take refuge in Venice. Charles advan-
ced to Florence; the magiftrates opened the
gates, the Medicis were profcribed, their pro-
perty confifcated, their ftatues broken, and the
republic feemed to revive. From Florence
Charles made hafte to Rome, to punifh the pope
who had declared againft him. The famous
Borgia then filled the papal chair ; a man who
had made himfelf fo infamous by his crimes,
that he was not only unworthy to be pope, but
even unfit to live. Caefar Borgia, his fon, as
wicked, and flill more cunning than the father^
was the pontiff's delight. They did not fcru-
pie to employ the mofl criminal means to fatisfy
their ambition. Alexander VI. whofe debauch-
eries fcandalized the Chriftian world, trembled
at the approach of the king of France, and
fhut himfelf up with his fon, and Zizim, the
unfortunate fon of Mahomet, in thecaftle of Sc.
Angelo. Charles entered Rome by the light of
flambeaux, and the pope fought to divert the
ilorm
Lect. VIL modern history* (343)
florm by negotiation. He engaged to deliver
Zizim to Charles, the poiTeflion of whom might
procure him the Othman empire. The ambiti-
ous monarch liftened to thefe propofals, forgot
the caufe of his refentment, made peace with the
pope, and became his protedlor. Zizim died
of poifon a few days after ; and Charles, fo far
from fufpeding the pope as guilty of the crime,
confirmed his ufurpations, they parted friends,
and he continued his route to Naples.
The cowardly and cruel Ferdinand I. died
fuddenly. His fon Alphonfo, ftill weaker, and
as wicked, having abdicated the crown in favour
©f Ferdinand II. lied into Sicily ; and Ferdinand
retired into a neighbouring ifland, there to wait
a more favourable moment. Charles finding
no obfiacles, penetrated into the kingdom of
Naples, and m.ade his entry into the capital,
amidft the acclamations of a vaft concourfe of
people. The Arragonian dominion ceafed,
and the houfe of Anjou recovered its ancient
rights. Unfortunately for Charles, he became
intoxicated with pleafure. His courtiers and foU
diers enervated with themildnefs of the climate,
and with a concourfe of all kinds of pleafures,
gave free reins Co licentioufnefs, infulted mo-
deiiy, violated the privileges of the Neapolitans,
and deftroyed the property of individuals. The
inhabitants murmured in vain ; the French de-
fpifed their juft complaints, and funk into a
y 4 fatal
(344) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
fatal fecurity. In the mean time, Alexander VI.
the Venetians, the king of Caftile, Maximilian
juft eledled emperor, and even Lodovvick Sforza
himfelf, entered into a fecret league, agreed to
attack Charles, and deprive him of the means
of returning to France. The citizens of
Naples, informed of this league, take up arms,
and call young Ferdinand to the throne of his
fathers. Charles received the news in the midft
of an entertainment. Dividing his little army,
he left four thou fan d men in the kingdom of
Naples, under the command of Bourbon dc
Montpenfier, and Stuart d'Aubigny, and he
himfelf marched with the reft to the north of
Italy. He filled Rome with terror, and obliged
the Borgias to conceal themfelves in Orviette.
Having reached Florence, where he wafted pre-
cious time, he was informed that his couiin the
duke of Orleans, having been defeated by Lodo-
wick Sforza, was ftiut up in Novara, where he
ran the rifk of being made prifoner. Charles*
courage revives at this difagreeable news, he
flies into Lombardy, and finds at Fornoua, a
village in the neighbourhood of Placentia, his
march oppofed by forty thoufand men. Perhaps
French courage never fhone more illuftrioufly
than on that celebrated day. Seven thoufand
men attacked this numerous army, pierced
their ranks, and the fuccefsful French beheld
their timid enemies, who durft not purfuc
them..
Lect.VIL modern history. (345)
them. -The imprudence of Charles faved
Lodowick Sforza ; for the French king being
arrived upon the confines of Piedmont, again
indulged himfelf in eafe and pleafure.
About the time of Charles' precipitate retreat
to France, Ferdinand of Naples, ailifted by the
tfoops of Alexander VI. the Venetian fleet, and
a few foldiers fcnt him by the king of Arragon,
under the command of the great Gonzalva, re-
covered his kingdom, beat Montpenfier, and
obliged him, by a fliameful capitulation, to
abandon the northern provinces. D'Aubigny,
a greater general than Montpenfier, was not
more fortunate, becaufe his enemies were fu-
perior in number, and commanded by the
greatefl captain of the age. Thus Ferdinand
faw himfelf mailer of Naples, Lodowick kept
Lombardy, the Venetians preferved the places
which had come into their poiTefiion, and Alex-
ander conceived thedeiign oferedling a princi-
pality for his fon.
Death deprived France of Charles VIII. and
when he died, the wars in Italy feemed to be at
^n end. But the duke of Orleans, his couiin,
who fucceeded by the name of Louis XIL
purfued the fchemes of his predecefTor *
George Amboife, his minifter, very defirous to
obtain the popedom, perfuaded Louis to carry
his arms into Italy. Louis began by fecuring
the pope, whofe fon he loaded with prefents,
and
(34^) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
and gave him the duchy of Valentinois. The
Venetians were in his intereft, and he obtained
from Maximilian the inveilituredf the Milanefe.
The city Milan was taken in the fpace of a
month. Lodowick Sforza was forced to fly into
Germany, from whence he foon returned to
recover his eflates ; but being betrayed by the
Swifs, he fell into the hands of Louis, who fhut
him up in prifon, where he died, after ten years
confinement. Parma, Placentia, and Genoa,
fubmitted to France ; and the fuccefs of Louis
was no lefs brilliant in Naples. He made a
treaty with the king of Arragon ; and Frederick,
whofucceededhisnephevv, Ferdinand of Naples,
feeing himfelf deprived of his throne, retired
into France, and fpent his time in the improve-
ments of learning.
The Spaniards and French did not continue
long united after the conqueft of Naples. Am-
bition divided them ; they took up arms, and
carried on war againft each other with great
fury. Then were difplayed the cunning of old
Ferdinand of Arragon, the candour and open-
nefs of Louis XI L the credulity and ambition
of George Amboife, the great talents of Gon-
zalva, of Anthony de Leva, and D'Aubigny.
The French, vanquifhed at Cerignolcs, loft for
ever the two Sicilies. Though Louis faw his
troops beaten in Navarre and Roufiillon, and al-
moft annihilated upon the frontiers of Naples ;
yet
Lect. VIL modern history. (347)
yet fuch was his infatuation, that he fent a new
army to attempt a fecond conqueft. But George
Amboife, by flopping at Rome, in hopes to im-
pofe on the conclave, that he might be chofen
pope after the death of Alexander, rendered the
efforts of Louis ufelefs, and loft to himfelf the
triple crown.
Cardinal Rovier, known by the name of Ju-
lius II. was feated in the paple chair, and from
the moment he became pope, formed the defign
of ftripping Casfar Borgia of his poffeflions, ot
forcing the Venetians to part with their ufurpa-
tions, and to drive the Spaniards, French, and
Germans, from Italy, where each domineered
in their turn. Julius began with Borgia, whom
he obliged to furrender the places he had con-
quered, and then banifhed him. The Venetians
refufed to reftore the cities they were in polTef-
lionof, and Julius planned the defign of arming
againft thefe republicans, the very people he in-
tended to drive from Italy. He concerted the
famous league of Cambray, and armed Germany,
France, Spain, and Italy, againft Venice. Maxi-
milian was to attack the republic in the north j
Louis XII. mafter of the Milanefe, was to enter
the Venetian ftates ; the fleets of Ferdinand were
to lay wafte the Gulph, and Julius was to over-
whelm them with the thunder of excommuni-
cation. Venice, in the midft of fo numerous
and powerful enemies, would not humble her-
felf.
(348) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
felf, fhe refufed the afliftance of Bajazer, would
not liflen to the fecret offers of the pope, but
determined to face them all. However, the ra-
pid fuccefs of the French brought the republic
to the very brink of dellruclion. Venice, feeing
her ruin unavoidable, refolved to bow to the
haughty pontiff, v»ho was the foul of the plot
formed againfl her. Julius, already uneafy at
the progrefsof the French, received the fubmif-
lionof the republic, the reftitution of the cities,
and withdrew from the league. Ferdinand was
gained by the fame means ; and the Venetians
being freed from two of their enemies, collected
all their forces againll Louis and Maximilian,
already weakened by the heat of the climate, and
the exceffes of their foldiers. The generals of
Louis were jealous and diffruflful of each other ;
this was favourable to the Venetians. Victorious
over Maximilian, they were openly fupported
by the pope, and king of Spain, who declared
war againft France. The republic joining her
new allies, after recovering the greatcfi: part of
what file had loft, attacked the French, and
purfued the duke of Ferrara in the intereft of
Louis, whom Julius widied to deprive of his
poffeffions. There is not a more aftoniffiing
characler in hiftory, than that of this pope : he
marched at the head of armies, drew the plan
of a campaign, ordered the difpofition of battle,
was prefent at lieges, often took cities by affault,
carried
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (349)
carried in a litter, he direded the trenches, and
entered the breach which his cannon had made^
D'Ars, Lautrec, and above all, the immortal
Bayard, fignalizcd themfelves in the armies of
France. Gafton de Foix, duke of Nemours,
nephew to Louis XII. v/as victorious in the
north of Italy ; but the death of that hero, flain
in the career of vidtory, gave a check to the fuc-
cefs of the French. Louis in a rage, would depofc
the pope by a general council. He, in concert
with Maximilian, called an affembly of bifliops
at Pifa. Julius employed the extent of his'
genius, convoked a council at Rome to excom-
municate his enemies, perfuaded the inconftant
Maximilian to difavow the convocation at Pifa,
to recal his bifhops, acknowledge the authority
of the council of Latran, and grant to the fon
of Lodowick Sforza, the invefliture of Milan.
The Swifs brought back young Sforza to Milan,
and drove away the French. At the fame time^
Genoa threw off the yoke of Louis. The coun-
cil of Pifa, obliged to fly from city to city, end-
ed by a mock reprefentation at Lyons. How-
ever, the council of Latran cited Louis to ap-
pear before it, laid his kingdom under an inter-
did:, and declared, that the king of Navarre,
the ally of France, had forfeited his crown,
Ferdinand, with the pope's bull in his hand,
made hafte to fend the duke of Alva into Na-
varre 5 and John Albert foon faw himfelf de-
prived
f350) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
prived of his kingdom, which never again re-
turned to its lawful heir. All thefe ftorms were
raifed by Julius II. One vidim flill remained
to be puniilied, viz. Louis XII. but death put
a period to the defigns of the furious old man.
Julius, notwithflanding his dexterity, acflivity,
talents, and the protection he gave to learning,
has no claim to the refpcd: of poflerity. He
pofTefTed the qualities of a fovereign ,• but his
many intrigues, the wars he carried on in per-
fon, and the fcandalous excefles in which he
indulged himfelf, were highly unbecoming the
head of the church, tie was not only a bad
pope, but a bad man.
Louis XII. was not more happy under the
fucceflbr of Julius. Cardinal Julian de Medi-
cis, who, under the name of Leo X. mounted
St. Peter's chair, followed the defigns of hispre-
deceffor. The Milanefe was once more taken
from Louis ; Genoa fhook off the yoke for the
third time ; the Swifs ravaged Burgundy, and
carried alarm to the gates of Paris; the Englifh,
conquerors at Guinegate, laid wafte the north-
ern provinces ; John Albert attempted in vain
to re-enter his kingdom ; James IV. of Scotland
was flain, while making a diverfion in favour of
his ally. Louis, with misfortunes on all fides,
was forced to humble himfelf before his enemy.
He difavowed the council of Pifa ; the Sforzas
were confirmed in their pofleffions, Navarre
remained
LscT. VIL MODERN HISTORY. (351)
remained to Ferdinand, and John Albert lofl
his inheritance. To comfort himfelf in thefe
revcrfes of fortune, Louis attached himfelf to
his people, and ftudied to promote their hnppi-
nefs. Guided by bad politics, this prince wa*
the dupe of his allies and enemies. A predelic-
tion for Italy, coll much human blood. His
intimate connections with the Borgias, his feve-
rity to Lodovvick Sforza, his cruelty to two
Venetian fenators, becaufe they had the courage
to defend a city intruded to their care, are fpots
which tarnilh the virtues of Louis XIL But
certainly this is one trait of a good prince, that
he never taxed his people but from abfolute ne-
ceflity, and that he chofe rather to renounce his
conquefts, than keep them to the hurt of his
fubjedls. When he died, France called him the
father of his people^ and a general mourningjn-
dicated the affecflionate regard of his fubjedls.
Francis L who fucceeded his coufin Louis XIL
married his daughter and took up his fchemes.
This prince, the hero of the age, faw with in-
dignation, the Milanefe wrefted from his pre-
deceflbr. He marched immediately to Italy,
obliged the duke of Savoy to open him a pafTage,
defeated Maximilian who would have oppofed
his march, and triumphed over the Italian troops
which Sforza brought againfl: him. He then
dircded his march to Milan, and engaged the
Svvifs near Marignan, a little village in Lombar-
dy.
(3P) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
dy, where a defperate battle was fought, which
continued two days. The Swifs, rather over-
powered than vanquifhed, beat the Venetians in
their retreat, and left the field of battle to Fran-
cis, who entered Milan in triumph, the other
cities followed the example of the capital; Sforza
was obliged folemnly to abdicate the fovereign-
ty, the Genoefe were again made fubjedl td
France, pope Leo demanded peace, the cities
taken from the Venetians were reftored, and
Francis 1. was confidered as the firft king ill
Europe. - '
England. — Henry VII. procured to England,
by his prudent reign, a tranquillity fhe had been
long a Granger to. But the intrigues of the
duchefs dowager of Burgundy, a princefs of the
houfe of York, and who mortally hated the hou fc
of Lancafler, often difquieted Henry, and dif-
turbed the peace of his kingdom. The reader
knov/s the artifices fne made ufe of to ftir up
competitors to Henry, firft Lambert Simncl, and
then the adventurer Perkin Warbeck, a Jew by
birth, born in a village in Flanders. — Ireland de-^
clared in his favour, and James IV. king of Scot-
land, gave him to wife a relation of his own, the
beautiful Catharine Gordon, daughter of the
marquifsof Huntly. Aflifted by the Scotch, he
ravaged Northumberland, gave alarm to the
capital, was followed by a crowd of malccon-
tents^and finifhed his career by abandoning his
army^
Lect.VII. modern history. f353J
army, when ready to engage the king's troops^
Henry, who difplayed much wifdom upon this
occafion, facrificed the innocent earl of War-
wick, the laft of the line of York, to the cruel
politics of Ferdinand of Spain, who would not
give his daughter Catharine to Arthur prince of
Wales, but on Condition of the death of that
nobleman. Arthur died a few months after his
marriage, and Catharine became the wife of
Henry's fecond fon, an union which was the
caufe of many changes, and the means of intro-
ducing the reformation into England.
Henry VIII. who mounted the throne of his
father, beheld the fouth of Europe on fire, and
defolated by the animofities of Julius II. of
Louis XII. Maximilian, and Ferdinand. This
young king declared in favour of the emperor,
went in perfon into Flanders, took Terrouane,
and gained at Guinegate the battle of Spurs*
He foon broke with his allies, made peace with
Louis XII. to whom he gave his fifler in mar-
riage, and continuing the fame union with
Francis I. the two nations feemed to have for-
gotten their former animofities and quarrels.
Spain. — In the mean time Spain, by the dif-
covery of the new world, was raifed to the
pinnacle of glory. Chriftopher Columbus, a
Genoefeby birth, after having been treated as a
vifionary by his countrymen, defpifed byCharles
VIII. king of France, driven out of England by
X 7, Henry
t354} MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
Henry VII. and amufed by Emmanuel of Por-
tugal ; after having fpent eight years in folic ita-
tions at the court of Ferdinand and Ifabella, had
at laft the good fortune to obtain three fmall
vefTels, with which, in the year 1492, he fet fail
•from Palos, a fmall fea-port town in Andaluiia^
rendered famous by this expedition. The
winds and the tempefts he had to ftruggle with
during his voyage, the rocks aad fhoals he had
to fear in unknown feas; the prejudices and
terrors of thofe with whom he failed, which
he was obliged to oppofe, and to which he was
often in danger of being facrificed ; the admi-
ration of his failors at the fight of Antipodes,
hitherto treated as an abfurdity ; the terror of
the American favages at thcnoife of the Spanifli
artillery; all thefe are well known to the reader.
— Upon the return of Columbus to Europe,
envy and fuperftition were changed into fen-
timents of admiration and refpedt. Portugal
received him in triumph ; the cities of Spain
fenr their magiftrates to meet him ; Ferdi-
nand and Ifabella made him fit with them in
the public ceremonies, declared him admiral
of the weft, and perpetual viceroy of all the
countries he might difcover. Decorated with
high founding titles, Columbus was fnatched
from the honours conferred on him, to go upoa
a new expedition. Arriving at his colony, he
found it almoft deftroyed. The unhappy In-
dians^
Lect. VIL MODERN HISTORY. (355}
dians had dared to affront their barbarous and
cruel conquerors; and the Spaniards, driven
from their city by thefavages, to whom defpair
was inftead of arms, were obliged to take
refuge in the mountains. Columbus having
checked the impetuofity of the Indians, gained
the good will of their Caciques by his virtues;
and by punifhing thofe who opprelfed the in-
habitants, reflored peace to the ifland, and fett-
led a new colony. Columbus, indefatigable in
his labours, determined to continue his difco-
veries. He difcovered the iflands, called An-
tilles, penetrated even to the Gulph of Mexico,
and failed along the coaft which extends from
Panama to the mouth of the river Oronooko. —
Being returned to Spain, he found a numerous
party, who, while they enjoyed his authority,
exhibited againft him to the council of Ferdi-
nand, the moft cruel and unjufl accufations.—
He was loaded with the mod infamous calum-
nies, and Fonfeca put himfelf at the head of
thofe,' who being jealous of the glory of Colum-
bus, did all they could to perfecute him. They
were not content to reprefent him as a cruel
governor, who by his feverities prevented the
progrefs of difcpvery, as a tyrant, who opprelfed
the Indians ; but they even went fo far, as to
difpute the glory of his enterprifes. They
gave out that he had been intruded by navi-
gators, whofe memoirs he had copied; they
Z 2 endeavoured
{3S6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VII
endeavoured to prove, that the new world had
been found out long before. Americus Vefpu-
tius, a Florentine, advanced to the continent dif-
covered by Columbus, and had the affurance to
boaft, that he was the firft who had landed there.
This falfehood was favoured by the odious Fon-
feca, and unjuft Europe gave the name America
to the new world. The ungrateful Ferdinand
fecretly fupported Fonfeca, and Ifabella, allow-
ing herfelf to be furprifed, figned an order for
his difgrace. A commiflioner, fent from Old
Spain to Hifpainiola in the Weft Indies, judged
Columbus, and condemned him to death ;
but hot daring to execute the barbarous fen-
tence, he loaded him with irons, and fent him
home to Spain. Columbus vindicated his
innocence, and confounded his enemies, yet
neverthelefs, was deprived of his dignity of vice-
roy. Difcouraged by fuch flagrant acts of in-
juftice, he re-embarked for the weftern world;
but the wicked machinations of his enemies^
purfued him to America, and would- not allow
him to land in Hifpaniola ; fo that he, after a
a year's fufFerings, was obliged to return to
Spain, where envy and calumny did not ceafe
to perfecute him to the grave. The death of
Columbus filenced llander. Then men opened
their eyes to his genius and abilities, and be-
llowed upon him, when dead, the juft honour
and praile, they refufed him while living. They
gave
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (357)
gave him a magnificent funeral, and paid kingly-
honours to his remains ; a fmall reward for the
important fervices he had done to mankind. — »
Crowds of Spaniards profecuted the difcover-
ies of Columbus, and formed new colonies. Ve-
lafques fettled a colony in the ifland of Cuba ;
NicuefTa fixed himfelf on the continent, near
the Ihores of the Gulph of Darien; Pedrarias
laid the foundations of the city Panama i Bova-
dilla penetrated into Florida ; and Balbao fail- '
ing towards the fouth pole, traverfed the Pacific
Ocean, and opened a route to future navigators
to fail round the world. However let us not for-
get to obferve, that the glory of thefe enterpri-
fes was tarnifhed by the unheard of cruelties,
which thefe navigators exercifed in the courfe
of their difcoveries. When we refled: upon the
evils, the aurijacrafames* has occafioned ,- upon
the barbarity and ferocity of the Spaniards, and
the new and excruciating tortures they invented
to deprive the Indians of life, we lament a dif-
covery, which, though perhaps advantageous
upon the whole, has been the caufe of ftrength-
ening the corruption, and ftifiing the feelings
of the human mind. — Thofe parts of America,
difcovered by the Spaniards, were fcon reduced
to a defert, or contained only wretched inhabi-
tants. In the midft of thefe horrors, Bartholo-
piew de Las Cafas, one of thofe names, wh ich
Z 3 the
• The infatiable defire of gold.
(358) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
the humane and fenfible part of naankind al-
ways refpeds, had the generoiity to defend out-
raged and fufFering humanity. It is plealing
to read the pious exertions of that virtuous
monk, by reprefentations, prayers, and tears, to
fnatch the murderous weapon from the hands
of his countrymen ; how he employed his time
in voyages from the old world to the new, and
from the new to the old, to make the voice of
companion be heard in both ; that he had the
noble courage to carry to the throne, the groans
of the unhappy vidlims of Spanifh avarice ; that
the hatred of the great, and the authority of
miniflers of flate, could not cool his ardour for
the rights of humanity ; and in a word, that he
had the courage to publifh to the world, the
tyrannical condu6l of the great men of Spain,
towards the poor Indians. The pathetic cries
of this orator of humanity, procured fome edicts
in their favour, but cruelty and felfifli interefl
eluded them. The unhappy Indians were not
relieved ; but they had the pleafure to fee their
favage opprclTors making war upon, and mu-
tually deftroying each other. Thefe fcenes of
hovror in America, and the continual emigra-
tions which avarice occafioned, confiderabiy
depopulated old Spain j and the expulfion of
. the Moors, which happened at the fame time,'
quite exhauded that country. Mendoza, arch-
bilhop of Toledo, and the famous cardinal
Ximenes,
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (359)
^vimenes, were the authors of that expullioii ;
an expuldon marked with the mofi: unheard of
cruelties. Then the court of inquifition was
cflablifhe-d in Spain, and many thoufands of
Moors were committed ro the flames by its ini-
quitous judges : nay, even thofe, whofe fenfibi-
Jity durft lament the vidlims facrificed to a bar-
barous fuperftition, did themfelvcs feel the ef-
fects of the inquifitor's diabolical rage.
However, the Spanifh monarchy continued
to increafe in power and importance by the ge-
nius of Ferdinand and Ifabella. The recovery
of Roulliilon and Cerdagne, the fubmiflion of
the kingdom of Naples, the Spanifh arms tri-
umphant in both hemifpheres, all thefe condu-
ced to the profperity of the king and queen of
Spain. But how uncertain is hum^an grandeur 1
All this fuccefs and apparent happinefs, was
followed by the feverity of woe. Their only
fondled in the flower of his age. Ifabella their
daughter, who was married to the king of
Portugal, died at an early period of life, with
-her fon, who, if he had lived, would have uni-
ted in his perfon, all the dominions of Spain.
Joan, married to Philip of Auflria, loll: her
fenfes; and Catharine, fcarcely married to Ar-
thur, heir of the Englifli crown, lofl: her huf-
band, and was married to his brother, which
proved to her a fource of many calamities.
The birth of Charles and Ferdinand, the fons
Z 4 of
(36o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
of Philip, was a counterpoife to all thefe mis-
fortunes ; but Ifabella did not long furvive this
joyful event. This princefs poiTelTed a gener-
ous foul, and an exteniive genius; but her glory-
was tarnilhed by a gloomy fuperftition, which
caufed her to put to death thoufands of innocent
vicl:ims. We would not enter into a detail of
the troubles which the death of Ifabella occali-
oned in Spain. Ferdinand was obliged to yield
the regency of Caftile to Philip his fon-in-law;
but his death foonmade the ambitious Ferdinand
mafter of that kingdom, notwithfbanding the jufl
preteniions of the weak Maximilian, who was
paternal grandfather to the prince of Ailurias.
Spain continued to flourifh by the abilities of old
Ferdinand. The French were driven a third
time from Naples by the great Gonzalva, and
Anthony de Leva, the Venetians were defeated
by Raymond de Cordonna, Navarre was con-
quered by the duke of Alva, the city Oran, on
the coaft of Africa, was taken by Ximenes, who
earned alarm even to the capital of Morocco.
However, in the midll: of all thefe profperities,
Ferdinand died of a lingering diftemper; and
Charles of Auftria faw himfelf, at the age of
fixteen, mafter of his grandfather*s vaft polfef-
fions, of the feventeen provinces of the Low
Countries, of Franche Comte -, and he alfo had
hopes of one day enjoy mg the eftates of the
houfe of Auftria. He was then the moft pow-
erful
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (361)
erful prince in Europe. Francis L mailer of
the duchy of Milan, already celebrated by the
laurels he had gathered in the field of Marignan,
was the only one who could enter into rivalfhip
with him. Henry Vlil. king of England, and
pope Leo X. feemed deftined to hold the balance
between Charles and Francis.
At this period, the interefl, of the principal
nations of Europe was blended together, by the
ambition of two rivals. Charles, detained in
the Low Countries, intruded the government of
Spain to Ximenes, who at the age of fourfcore,
difplayed the vigour and abilities of a moft emi-
nent flatefman. Ximenes was a clergyman of
irreproachable morals, of an extenfive genius,
and intrepid foul j an incorruptible minifter of
flate, whom pofterity would have adorned with
the title of a great man, had he not given the
barbarous orders to reduce Navarre to a defert,
fo it could not be preferved to Spain ; and if
his perfecuting and fanguinary zeal had not
condemned thoufands of unhappy muiTulmen to
the flames, whofe only crime was their unwil-
lingnefs to renounce the religion they had re-
ceived from their fathers.
Charles, after the treaty of Noyon, whicfi.
feemed to unite him for ever with France,
went into Spain, and made the nation confer on
him the authority, which, by law, belonged to
his mother. The confidence which he placed
m
{362) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
in the Flemings, excited a revolt among the
Spaniards, but he had the dexterity to quell it
by promifcs, which he determined never to
perform. Whilft engaged in thefe matters,
Charles received the news of the death Maxi-
milian.
Maximilian, who had always been involved
in the troubles of Europe, left the empire in
great confulion. The reformation was rapidly
fpreading in Germany. Frederick of Saxony
had publicly declared himfelf the protector of
Luther, arid of the reformed dodtrines.
Religious difputes agitated the minds of men.
The reformers wifhed to fhew ftill more clearly
to the world, the errors and antichriflian
fpirit of the church of Rome; the Roman
Catholics were enraged againft what they con-
lidered as innovations, and a fpirit of free,
inquiry was diffufing itfelf through Europe.
In thefc difficult circumflances, the eledlors
aiTembled to chufe a chief. In vain did Fran-
cis I. intrigue to obtain the imperial crown ; it
was conferred upon Charles of Spain, This
preference of his rival enraged the French king,
he was eagerly defirous of revenge, and, with
this view, fought to engage Henry VIII. in his
quarrel. But Charles, who forfaw his enemy's
deligns, w^ent into England, and by fine pro-
mifes to cardinal Wolfey, brought over Henry
to his interefts. Having fecured the king of
England^
Iect. VII. modern history. (36:^)
England, the emperor palTed into Germany to
be crowned. Obliged to manage pope Leo, fo
as to keep him in his intercfts, he condemned
Luther and the reformation ; but by this pro-
fcription, the princes who favoured that re-
former, were turned againfl: him. in the mean
time, the government of Spain being intruded
to Adrian, Charles' preceptor, a weak man, all
the diforders of licentioufnefs and revolt broke
out in that country. The Fr<?nch, who wifhed
to take advantage of thcfe troubles, attacked the
emperor by the duke de Bouillon, on the fide
of Flanders, and fent Lautrec into Navarre. —
Charles made hafte to appeafe the Spaniards by-
proper conceiTions, and to footh the Lutherans
with promifes. He bound Wolfey to him, fe-
curcd Leo, and marched againft the duke de
jBouillon, whom he ftripped of his eftates in a
few days. He afterwards entered France ; and
a bloody battle feemed to decide the quarrel of
two formidable rivals, when Henry VIIL offer-
ed to be mediator between them; but the
' flatterers of Francis ioon broke all the meafures
of the king of England, and difcord prevailed
- jnore than ever.^
Hiflorians give a minute detail of this war,
fo long, fo bloody, and fo fatal to France. — A
very fevere reverfe of fortune happened to
Francis.- He 1 oft the Milanefe; England de^
i:lared againft him ; Wolfey, who beheld the
triple
(364) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
triple crown placed upon Adrian's head after
the death of Leo, fiill allowed himfelf to be
flattered by Charles V. with new promifes. —
Venice withdrew from her alliance with France.
The Conftable de Bourbon become a traitor,
and Pifcairo, penetrated into Provence, befieged
Marfeilles, and threatened tomakethefouthern
provinces rebel. At the fame time Henry laid
wafte Picardy, and advanced within tvventy
leagues of the capital. Francis, in this danger-
ous fituation, bravely oppofed all his enemies ;
obliged Bourbon to fly, forced Henry to return
into England, and refolved to carry the war
into Italy. His fuccefs was of fhort duration,
being obliged to yield before Pavia to the fu-
perior fortune of Charles. The battle fought
in the i)lains of that city became fatal to France.
Francis was taken prifoner, tl-te king of Navarre,
and more than half of the French nobility,
fliared the captivity of their prince, or were left
dead upon the field of battle.
This vidtory difquieted the emperor's allies.
— The Venetians began to feel the danger
which threatened the liberties of Europe.
Medicis, who had fucceeded Adrian, by the
name of Clement VII. was terrified to fee
himfelf furrounded by the emperor's pofleffions.
Wolfey, deceived a fecond time, followed the
didates of his refentment, and, in the fpace of
a few months, formed a league in favour of the
captive
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (365)
captive king. Francis I. after one year of hard
captivity, recovered his liberty, but was obliged
to renounce the homage of Artois and Flanders,
to give up his pretenlions to the Milanefe, and
promife to yield Burgundy to Charles. He gave
his two fons hoftages for the performance of
thefe conditions ; but freed from prifon, he pro-
tefled againfl promifes which had been extorted
from him, demanded the reft itution of his fons,
and invited Europe to join him. Henry openly
efpoufed his caufe, Clement interefted Italy in
his favour, and even Sforza himfelf, whom the
emperor had re-eflablifhed in the Milanefe,
turned againft his benefadlor. Doria of Genoa,
that celebrated admiral, fought for France. In
Germany, the princes and others of the re-
formed religion, threatened to take up arms, and
the malecontents of Spain were more bold than
ever. Charles prepared to diflipate thefe ftorms.
His firmnefs kept his fubjecls in obedience; he
pacified Germany by a temporary pliantnefs ;
and Anthony de Leva, one of his generals,
drove Sforza from the Milanefe, and made him-
felf mafter of it. Bourbon, who comrrfanded
an army of advanturers, having pillaged the
north of Italy, marched to Rome, where he was
flain, while placing a ladder, by v/hich he might
have the honour of being the firft that mounted
»the walls. His foldiers, enraged at the lofs of
their general, entered the city fword in hand,
and
t366) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
and exercifed all the cruelties, which Rome had
felt when facked by Alaric and Attila. The
French were again fuccefsful. The Imperialifls
were driven from Lombard/, the pope was re-
lieved, and Rome became free; even Lannov
himfelf was obliged to give way to the impetu-
ofity of the French, and the capital of the king-
dom of Naples, belieged by fea and land, by
Doria and Lautrec, promifed conqueft to the
arms of Francis. But a court intrigue foon
blafted thefe hopes. Unprincipled courtiers
plotted the defl:rad:ion of the Genoefe admiral,
and procured from the credulous king an order
to arreft him. Doria. informed of the treacher-
ous plot, was filled with juft indignation, and
made an offer of his valour, talents, power^
and {hips, to Charles V. who gladly accepted
them. The lofs of one man immediately
changed the face of affairs. Naples received
affiftance, want of proviiions deftroyed the
befiegers, a peftilence followed, and the death
of the brave Lautrec completed the deftrudiion
of the French. Doria flew to Genoa, which he
excited to rebel, and made himfelf mafter of
the city. Charles gave him the fupreme com-
mand of his fleets, loaded him with honours,
and bellowed upon him the fovereignty of
Genoa. Then Doria was at the fummit of
human fame and glory ; but infl:ead of enflaving
his country, the only ule he made of his power
was.
Lect. Vir. MODERN HISTORY. (3^7)
was, to appeafe feditions, to reconcile families,
and perfuade the Genoefe to receive a wife and
moderate government. Having accomplifhed
this work, Doria folemnly divefted himfeif of
his power, and reflored to the Genoefe that
liberty they ftill enjoy.
Tranquillity once more took place in Europe.
Charles granted peace to the pope, * to Francis
by the treaty of Cambray, and Burgundy was
left to France. This peace was neceffary to
the emperor's defigns. He was defirous to
Hop the progrefs of the Turks, and crufli the
reformation, which had at its head the Land-
grave of HelTe, and the eledlor of Saxony.
Charles having regulated the affairs of Italy,
hafbened into Germany. There he made ufe of
all his artifice and cunning to fufpend the dif-
putes of the Roman Catholics and Proteflants ;
got his brother Ferdinand eledled king of the
Romans, and marched againft the Turks with
all the forces of Germany. Solyman was in
Hungary wich an army of Janiflaries, and
menaced Germany wdth defbrudlion. Fortune
balanced between Charles and Solyman ; they
appeared to be afraid of each other; but the
Turk was obliged to retreat. Charles de-
livered a part of Hungary, fecured the empire,
and received the applaufe of Europe. In the
mean time much was done in his favour in
the
* The peace with the poue was mads at Barcelona.
(j68) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
the new world. Cortez fubdued Mexico,
and Pizzaro acquired the kingdom of Peru ;
while intrepid navigators explored the fouth
feas, and brought many iflands to be fubjed:
to Spain. Thus the emperor faw himfelf
mafter of the mines of Potofi and Chili, of the
fpices and diamonds of Afia. His riches in-
cre?>fed, and all feemed to unite to augment
his glory and power. But domeftic misfor-
tune difturbed his happinefs. Catharine of
Arragon, his aunt, married to Henry VIII. of
England, from political views, lofl her hufband's
afFecflion, and became difagreeable to him. —
The charms of Ann Bullen captivated that laf-
civious prince, and he fought for a pretext to
difTolve the marriage with Catharine, that he
might marry her maid of honour. Scruples of
confcience furnifhed him with one, and he fhud-
dered to think, that he had lived eighteen years
in inceft with his brother's widovv. Wolfey,
to revenge himfelf of Charles, who had fported
with his ambition, flattered Henry's pretended
remorfe. The theological fchools, which Hen-
ry confulted, determined, that a marriage con-
tracted with a brother's widow, ought to be dif-
folved. Clement, before whofe tribunal the
affair was carried, being unfriendly with Charles,
appeared to favour Henry ; but the pope, hav-
ing been reconciled to the emperor, changed
his fentiments, and deferred from time to time
to
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (369)
to give judgment. The delays of Rome pro«
voked Henry, who ordered an Enghfh fynod,
in which Cranmer prefided, to dilTolve the mar-
riage, contraded another with Ann BuUen, and
publifhed it to the world. — Clement, influenced
by the emperor, (truck him with the thunder
of the Vatican. From that time Henry broke
off all communication with Rome, declared
himfelf fupreme head of the church of England,
changed the form of worfhip, gave new com-
mifHons to the bifhops, fuppreffed the monas-
teries, and ordered all relics to be burnt.——
Thofe of the reformation hoped this revolution
would have been favourable to them j but the ca-
pricious Henry, pafTionately fondof thedodrines
of Rome, put to death, without diftindlion, thofe
who adhered to the pope, and thofe who em-
braced the reformed religion. His inexorable
difpofition made all tremble, he overturned Ro-
mifh altars, fhed the blood of virtuous men,
fported with the laws, and obliged the nation to
fubmit to his abfurd humours and arbitrary-
commands.
While fcenes of this kind were aded in Eng-
land, Franv-is I. invited the fciences and fine
arts into his kingdom ; gave them the moft
generous encouragement, cultivated them him-
felf, and enlightened France with the dawn of
thofe happy days which followed. But thofe
attempts of Francis, to promote the tafte and
A a improve*.
f37o) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL
improvement of his fubje&, were fullied with
a barbarous intolerance. He committed to the
flames, thofe who, in matters of religion, at-
tempted to think for themfelves. War was
rekindled. The duke of Milan, contrary ta
juflice and the rights of nations, caufed an am-
baflador of Francis I. to be affailinated ; and
the French king thought the time was come ta
humble his rival. He imagined that Henry
would take part with him. He had new mo-
delled his army, and taken advantage of peace
to replenifh his treafury. Charles was gone
into Africa to fight the famous BarbarolTa. All
thefe circumflances were favourable to Francis..
He drove the duke of Savoy from his domini-
ons, becaufe he declared for the emperor, and
the death of Sforza opened to him a palTage into
Lombar<iy. But the face of affairs changed on
a fudden. Charles was fuccefsful in Africa;
Barbaroffa fled before him, and the kingdom of
Tunis became tributary to Spain. Twenty
thoufand Chriftians, whom he freed from fla-
very, adorned his triumph. While he triumph-
ed over the infidels, he intrigued againft Francis,
caufed foldiers to be privately levied, brought
over the Venetians to his fide, and gained Henry^.
whofe hatred of Charles feemed to be implacable^
He lulled his enemy afleep with a pretended re-
conciliation, and when every thing was ready,.
lie difcovered his defigns, and threatened France
with;
Lect.VIL modern history. (37i)
with univerfal ruin. NaiTau ravaged Picardyi
and carried alarm, even to Paris. Charles him-
felf entered Provenc^e, and laid fiege to Mar-
feilles. The dauphin died in the midft of thefe
difafters, and Europe thought France upon the
brink of deffcrudlion. But though involved in
thefe calamities, the firmnefs, intrepidity, ac-
tivity, and prudence of Francis, fhone with
redoubled luftre. He fortified the cities, laid
"wafte the flat country, checked the impetuofity
of his troops, refufed to fight, and faw his ene-
mies perilh by difeafe and want of provilions.
It was with difficulty that Charles got back into
Italy, after having lofl the half of his army, and
Anthony de Leva, his bell general. In Picardy,
the duke of Guife obliged NafTau to raife the
liege of Pcronnej and he experienced the fame
reverfe of fortune, that Charles did inPrbvenge.
Francis made an open alliance with Solyman,
and appeared more powerful than ever. The
theatre of war was carried into Artois, Pied-
mont, and Catalonia j and the two parties fig-^
nalized themfelves by ravages, which ferved no
other purpofe but to increafe the miferies of
mankind. Two princiefles became the media-
tors between thefe two rivals, and their quarrels
were fufpended. The pope, Charles and Francis,
united at Nice, and at Aiguefmortes, the em-
peror and king gave each other tokens of a moll
fincere friendlhip. They feemed to be animated
A a 2 with
(372) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL
with the moft generous confidence. Charles,,
when he went to reduce the revoked inhabitants
of Ghent, travelled by the way of France, and
M as received in every place through which he
pafTed, with every poflible honour. Charles pro-
mifed to Francis the invefliture of the Milanefe^
but the latter would not accept of the alTurancc
given him. Thefe marks of confidence were
fincere on the part of Francis, but w ith Charles
they were only feigned ; for no fooner was he
arrived at Ghent, than he revealed to Henry the
fecrets intrufted to him by Francis, and in-
formed the German Proteftants of the defigns
which this imprudent king had formed againft
them. The emperor*s treachery revived their
hatred ; and the alTaflination of two of Francis*
ambafladors by one of Charles* generals, re-
newed the war. The time of the emperor's^
humiliation feemed to be ac hand. Defeated
at Algiers by the Turks, he faw the two Sicilies
threatened by the fleets of Solyman and Francis^.
Hungary ravaged by the Janiflaries, and Ger-
many on fire by the ftruggles of the Proteftants
for religious liberty. At the fame time thc-
duke d'Enguien obtained a complete vidlory at
Cerifoles, and the Milanefe was upon the point
of falling into the hands of the French. But
Charles quickly repaired all thefe lolTes. The
troops which he fent againft Solyman, by keep-
ing upon the defcnfive, checked the impetuofity
L^cT.VII. MODERN HISTORY. {373}
ofthe Turks. He appeafed the Proteflants with
promifes, oppofed Doria to Barbaroflli, made
Henry come with a powerful army into France,
and he himfelf entered it by Champa ignc»
Henry took Boulogne ; Charles, after having
made himfelf mafter of St. Dizier, advanced to
SoifTons, and the Parifians abandoned the ca-
pital in crowds. The projed: of conquering
France, formed by the emperor, was in a fair
way of being realized, when the difagreement
of the allies faved her. Francis took advantage
of their difagreement, and accepted of the peace
of Crepi, with the conditions Charles impofed
on him. Francis, tired of war, and worn out
with his many reverfes of fortune, fought con-
fdation in the fine arts, and ended his earthly
career in the midll: of them. France, indebted
to him for the return of learning and tafte, has
placed Francis in the rank of her greatefl kings,
and becaufe he beftowed on her fo valuable a
^ift, eafily forgave him all his faults ; but the
impartial hiftorian, while with his admirers, he
would do juftice to his love of the fine arts and
fciences, to his valour, bountiful difpolition,
and candour, fliould not lofe fight of, nor con-
ceal his inapplication to bufinefs, his incon-
ftancy in the execution of his defigns, his bad
choice of favourites, his want of oeconomy, the
difgrace of Bourbon and Doria, his partiality
to Bonnivet, the imprudence he was guilty of
A a 3 at
(374) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
at Pavia, his intolerance to the Proteftants, the
lale of employments, which he allowed to be
introduced during his reign, and the misfor-
tunes ot his people, who groaned under excef-
live taxes.
After the death of Francis, every thing feem-
ed to promife Charles the monarchy of Europe.
The German Lutherans, to the number of a
hundred thoufand, were united, having at their
head the eledior of Saxony, and the landgrave
of HelTe. Charles with a lefs numerous army,
attacked them at Mulberg, and the bravery of
the young duke of Alva rendered the number of
the Proteftants of no avail. The elecftor was
taken prifoner, and his party difcomfited. But
whilft every thing concurred to increafe the
grandeur of Charles, the jealoufy of his many
fuccefles animated Europe againft him. Eng-
land gave affiftance to the German Proteftants,
the eledlors, moft devoted to Charles, declared
for them, Solyman made his appearance in
Hungary, Henry II. the new king of France,
retook feveral cities in Lorrain, and the pope
himfelf fecretly favoured the emperor's enemies.
Lutheranifm became triumphant. Charles hav-
ing mifcarried before Metz, was defeated at
Eylleben, and flying before his fubjecls, was
obliged to ftielter himfelf in the rocks of the
Alpes. This reverfe of fortune did not difmay
him, his wifdom, aftivity, and forefight, fooa
procured
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (375 )
procured him vidlory and peace. After this
Charles appeared no more at the head of armies.
Afflid:ed with the gout, and worn out with the
fatigue of adlion, he took a refolution which
aflonifhed Europe; he abdicated his crowns,
which he divided between his fon and brother,
and fought for happincfs in folitude ; where, after
two years fpent in the auflerities of religious
devotion, he ended a life and reign of continual
agitation and trouble. <
The events of the other kingdoms and ilates
of Europe, during this period, deferve only a
few general obfervations. We behold at Rome
the odious pontificate of Alexander VI. the tur-
bulent reign of Julius II. the brilliant days of
Leo X. the weak and inferior condud of Adrian
VI. Clement VII. his love of letters, the ambi-
tion of Paul III. for the grandeur of his family,
in favour of which he erected Parma and Pla-
centia into a principality, the obfcure pontifi-
cate of Julius III. who was deftitute of talents
and virtue, and laflly, the tranfitory reigns of
Marccllus II. and Paul IV.
The dukes of Savoy experienced nothing but
misfortunes. They had always been the vidims
of the quarrels of the two great powers that fhook
the world. The unhappy Charles III. tranf-
mitted but a feeble inheritance to his fon Phili-
bert, who made a figure among the heroes of
the following period. — Genoa, which was in-
A a 4 debted
(yj6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
debted for her liberty to the great Doria, and
had very near loft it by the ambition of de Fief-
que, was deprived of all her colonies, and with
difficulty ftruggled againflCorfica, which ftiehas
now alfo loft. Venice, by her politics, retrieved
the misfortunes of the league of Cambray ; but
fhe loft the commerce of the eaft, and the Turks
took from her, her moft valuable pofleflions. —
Florence, after having experienced very ftrange
and fudden revolutions, finiftied by falling into
flavery, and the Medicis became abfolutc ma-
tters of that city, after the death of Philip
Strozzi.
England was affecfted with great revolutions
under the reign of Henry VIII. Ann Bulleii
loft her head upon a fcaffbld. Jane Seymour,
the mother of Edward VI. died in child-bed.
Ann of Cleves was divorced feven months after
marriage. Catharine Howard ended her days
by the hands of the public executioner, and
Catharine Parr, but for her wife condudl,
would have met with the fame fate. Wolfey,
ftripped of all his employments, and threatened
with death, died of a broken heart. Lord
Cromwell, after having enjoyed the confidence
of Henry, was profcribed by that terrible
monarch, and facrificed to his caprice. Fiftier
and Sir Thomas More died upon a fcaffold.
All trembled before the tyrant. The parlia-
ment, through fear or cowardice, fandioned
with
Lect. VII. modern history. (377)
with their authority, the moft abfurd laws, and
complied with Henry's mad caprices. Yet,
notwithflanding this overturn in the order
of civil and religious matters, the kingdom was
perfedlly tranquil, juftice was impartially ad-
miniftered, the Scotch were defeated, and Eng-
land was conlidered as the only power, that
could hold the balance between the emperor
and the king of France. After the death of the
fevere Henry, the duke of Somerfer, the ma-
ternal uncle of Edward VI. and his tutor, in-
troduced the reformation into England. The
intrigues of Dudley, earl of Northumberland,
deftroyed the duke of Somerfet, his benefador,
gained the confidence of young Edward, and
perfuaded him to leave the crown to lady Jane
Gray, to the prejudice of his two lifters, and
the queen of Scotland. Edward's premature
death feemed to open to the family of the am-
bitious Warwick a way to the throne. Lord
Guildford, his fon, had married Jane Gray,
who, by the laft will of the young prince, was
called to the crown. But Mary, daughter of
Henry VIII. difconcerted the regent's defigns.
She was declared queen, and a general revolu-
tion took place in religion. Cranmer, the fup-
port of the reformation, was difgraced, and the
Romilh prelates put at the head of affairs.
Mary efpoufed the archduke Philip, the em-
peror's fon, and fignalized her reign by the
moft
(378) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VII.
mod bloody executions. The innocent Jane
Gray, and her worthy hufband, were the firfl
vidcims. Fires were kindled throughout Eng-
land, and the barbarous minifters of the bigotted
and bloody Mary, precipitated into the flames,
learned and pious men, venerable prelates, wo^
men and children. Le: us draw a veil over
thofe fcenes of horror, which, nothing but the
moil cruel fanaticifm could have produced,
chiefly when lodged in a foul as fanguinary as
that of Mary.
The effeds of Romifh cruelty were felt in
Scotland, under the reign of Mary Stuart. Car-
dinal Beaton, archbifliop of St. Andrews, con-
demned one Wilhart as a heretic, and his unjull
fentence enflamed the Scotch, and puflied them
on to revenge ; — the cardinal loft his life, and
Scotland was involved in thofe evils, which pre-
vailed more or lefs in every part of Europe,
where the people attempted to fliake off religi-
ous flavery, and think for themfelves.
Switzerland was not exempted from the trou^
bles which agitated the reft of Europe. The
reformation got footing in that country, and
animated the Roman Catholics againft the Pro-
teftants. The cantons that would not adopt
the fentiments of Zuinglius, took arms againft
their brethren. A bloody battle was fought, in
which the reformers were worfted ; but an ap-
prehenfion of the calamities ready to fall upon
their
Lect.VII. modern history. (379)
their country, awakened their good fenfc ; the
two parties laid down their arms, and mutually
agreed, that each canton fhould have liberty to
chufe the religion and form of worfhip it liked
befl. — About the fame time, Geneva eredled
itfelf into a republic, threw off the dominion of
its bifliop, and of the duke of Savoy, adopted
the dodlrines and church difcipline of Calvin,
and re-eftablifhed the mild government of a
democracy.
We behold new ftates arife in the north.
Albert of Brandenburg, grand mailer of the
Teutonic order, embraced the reformation,
kept the provinces fubjed to the knights, and
laid the foundation of the kingdom of PrulTia.
Poland exhibited wars of little confequence
with Ruflia, and fome conquefts, fuch as that
ofMazovia, and the fertile Livonia. Tyrants
reigned in Ruflia, who, after having expelled
the Tartars, laid an iron yoke upon their
fubjeds.
Of all the northern kingdoms, Sweden and
Denmark deferve molt of the reader's atten-
tion, during the period under review. Sweden
once more renounced the treaty of Calmar,
broke off all connection with Denmark, and
raifed Suant Sture to the dignity of regent of the
kingdom, who acquired great fame by his vir-
tues and vidories. After the death of that hero,
fhe ambition and mad condud of young Troll,
and
(380) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
and the archbilhop of Upfal, involved the na-
tion in difgrace and mifery. They united with
Chriftiern II. the tyrant of Denmark, confpi-
red againft their country, and excited rebellion.
In vain did the Swedifh fenate condemn the fe-
ditious archbilhop, deprive him of his dignity^
and put him in confinement ; this did not pro-
cure tranquillity to the kingdom. New ftorms
arofe in Sweden ; pope Leo X. ftruck the na-
tion with the thunder of excommunication;
Chriftiern, having entered Sweden, wafted the
country with fire and fword, and laid fiege to
Stockholm. The regent, Stheno, after having
defeated the troops of the Danifh king, and fhut
him up between the city and the fea, was fo
imprudent as to liften to propofals of peace from
Chriftiern. The Danifh monarch requefted that
Guftavus Vafa might repair to his camp to treat
of peace with him; but no fooner was this
young prince, the defcendant of the ancient
kings of Sweden, in his pofTeflion, than he fled
to Denmark. With Guftavus in his power,
Chriftiern prepared to renew the war. He
gave the command of the troops furnifhed him
by France, to Otho, a German. The Danes
made a defcent upon Sweden. The regent loft
his life in a bloody battle fought on the frozen
lake Veter, and the nation became a prey to the
Danes. Chriftiern, mafter of Stockholm, and
of the whole kingdom, put to death many
bilhops,
LscT. VIL MODERN HISTORY, (3S1)
bifliops, fenators, gentlemen, and women of
illuftrious rank ; and his foldiers, falling upon
the people fword in hand, deluged the llreets
with the blood of thoufands. One vidtim only
Was wanting to glut the rage of the barbarous
Chriftiern, this was Guftavus ; but that prince
had efcaped from confinement. There is not
a more interefling part of hiftory than that
which defcribes the condud of young Guftavus
in his calamitous fituation. It affords pleafure
to the fenlible mind to attend him in his flight
from Lubec and Calmar; to fee him pafling
through the enemy's army in a cart loaded with
ftraw. Having gotten fafe to Sweden, his re-
lations and friends would not countenance him,
his vafTals would give him no afliftance, and
the friars of a religious houfe, founded by his
father, would not afford him an afylum ; he
concealed himfelf in the barn of one who had
been a domeflic to his father, by whom he was
informed, that his family had perifhed by the
hands of the executioner. Fearing a difcovery
in this retreat, he went into Dalecarlia attended
by a guide, who robbed and left him. Wan-
dering on the mountains, and deflitute of food,
he was forced to hire himfelf to labour in the
mines. In this fituation he was known to a
woman, and by her conducfted to a gentleman,
who exprefled fome defire to ferve him.
Again, a pretended friend entertained, and be-
trayed
(382) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
trayed him. A country clergyman concealed
him, fliared in his defigns for the deliverance of
his country, and perfuaded him to apply to the
peafants. Guflavus relifhed his advice, he af*
fembled them on Chriftmas-day, difcovered to
them who he was, infpired them with a refolu-
tion to throw off the Danifh yoke, and put him-
felf at their head. Hence the commencement
of his fuccefs. With an army which continu-
ally increafed, he expelled the Danes from the
Swedifh provinces, got himfelf declared regent^
feized upon Stockholm, was crowned king of
Sweden by the ftates, and obliged Chriftiern to
take refuge in Denmark, while Troll went into
Norway to foment new troubles. Fixed upon
the throne, Guflavus turned his attention to
promote the wealth and happinefs of his coun-
try. His court became the habitation of polite-
nefs and magnificence. He invited learned
men into his kingdom. Order and regularity
.were introduced into the finances. The troops
were better difciplined, and Sweden alTumed a
new face. To render him truly a king, one
great blow remained to be ftruck ; this was to
humble the powerful, wealthy, and factious
clergy. Convinced that the beft means to ac-
compli fh this, was, to introduce the reforma-
tion into his dominions; he attempted the im-
portant revolution, and fucceeded. Olaus
Petri was placed at the head of the Swedifh re-
formed
Lect.VII. modern history. (2^3)
formed church. This change occafioned fome
diflurbances, but thefe conduced to the advan-
tage of Guflavus. Mafter of the clergy, he
humbled the nobility, made himfelf an inde-
pendent monarch, declared the throne heredi-
tary, and confecrated the reft of his days to pro-
mote the happinefs of his fubjedls.
In Denmark, after the weak reign of John I.
Chrilliern II. being driven out of Sweden by
Guflavus, and continuing to treat the Danes in
the moft tyrannical manner, was precipitated
from the throne by his own fubjeds, who
defpifed and detefled him. His nephew Fre-
derick, who was chofen in his place, attempted
in vain to reconquer Sweden. Obliged to ac-
knowledge Guftavus, he defeated the enterprifes
of Chrifliern, who, having efcaped out of pri-
fon, endeavoured again to obtain the crown,
which his mad condud: had loft. Troll was
flain in battle; Chriftiern became once more
his fucceflbr's prifoner, and the generous Fre-
derick dedicated his reign to the profperity of
his fubjedts. Chriftiern III. who fucceeded his
father Frederick, introduced the reformed reli-
gion, with the arts and fciences into Denmark.
Portugal became every day more renowned
by the difcoveries of her navigators, and the
conquefts of her admirals. During this period,
and in the reign of the great Emmanuel, Vafco
de Garaa doubled the Cape of Good Hope,>
penetrated
{384) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII,
penetrated iiito the Eaflern Ocean, traverfed fix
thoufand leagues of coaft, failed to the Indies,
and arrived at Calicut, where he made the
name of the Portuguefe be refpedled ; Almeida
pulhed his difcoveries fiill farther, and began
that commerce which had enriched Egypt;
Albuquerque difcovered the mod diftant ex-
tremities of Afia, conquered Malabar, founded
Goa, and fent the diamonds, pearls, indigo, and
fpices of the eaft, to Lifbon. At the fame
rime Alvarez de Cabrel, failing towards the
wefl, landed in Brazil in South America, and
founded there a colony, which is flill the moft
powerful of any belonging to Portugal. In the
reign of John III. the Portuguefe continuing
their difcoveries, arrived at China, and made
that empire known to Europe. The conquefl
of the ifland of Hainan, in the centre of which
they built Macao, the difcovery of Japan,
which became a fource of prodigious com-
merce, and the theatre of the zeal of Francis
Xavier, raifed Portugal to the fummit of glory,
and greatly increafed her wealth.
The annals of Turkey, in this period, prefent
the reader with the depolition of Bajazet, who
had no abilities for government; with the
cruel and vigorous reign of Selim his fon ; with
the fhining vidtories of Solyman II. his war*
with the houfe of Auftria, in Hungary, Ger-
man/,
Lect/VII. modern history. (385)
many, and Africa, and his glorious expeditions!
in Afia.
The Reformation. — The ancient and modern
hiftory of mankind does not prefent us with a
more important revolution, than that which the
reformation brought about in the beginning of
the fixteenth century. Perhaps no revolu-
tion has had fo marked and general an mflu-
ence upon the induflry of nations, upon the go-
vernment of kingdoms, the manners of men,
the progrefs of fcience, and upon fociety in
general. The reader is alteady acquainted with
the exceflive power which the popes had ac-
quired in things fpiritual and temporal. All
Europe- bowed under the yoke of Rome, and
trembled at the name of pontiff* Thofe, who
from time to time had boldly attempted to
withftand this formidable power, had all mif-
carried. Emperors, kmgs, and nations, had
in vain employed force, religion, and fcience^
to break their chains ; the pontiff's throne re-
mained unfliaken, and his enemies, after un-
availing attempts, were obliged to acknowledge
themfelves the fiaves of the fee of Rome. An
uninterrupted train of triumphs over the Chrif-
tian world, feemed firmly to have eflabliflied the
defpotifm of the popes. But there is an appoint-
ed time for every thing. It was referved by Pro-
vidence for an obfcure individual to (hake this
formidable throne, to deprive the Romifh fo-
X B b vereigit
(^26) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL
vereign of one half of his empire, and difcom-
pofe the other ; to roufe men from that deep
fleep in which they were buried, and prefent
them with the lamp of reafon and religion, with
which they might fee the errors, impoftures,
and ufurpations of the Latin church; and
chiefly, that they might feel the mifery of their
fervile condition. Luther was the authotj or
rather inflrument, of this memorable revolution.
Born at Eyfleben, in Saxony, of parents in a
low ftation of life, he was put into a convent of
Auguflin friars, where he foon diflinguilhed
himfelf by his great application to ftudy, by
his penetration, and chiefly, by an eafy and
bold manner of exprefling himfelf. He wa$
made teacher of philofophy at Wittembcrg,
and foon rofe to be profeflbr of theology in ths
fame city, where he acquired great reputation.
At that time Leo X. the patron of the arts and
fciences, wanted to finifli the fuperb church of
St. Peter, in Rome, and feeing his treafure ex-
haufted, he opened a treafury of indulgences.
They were fent from Rome to be fold in Ger-
many ; and the Dominicans were charged with
the fale of them. Never was there fo fcandal-
ous an abufe of indulgences. They were fold
publicly as mercantile ware, and with the
greateft indecency in taverns and ale-houfes.
They were proclaimed as heavenly favours,
which of themfelves blotted out the mofl: hein-
ous
Lect. VII. modern history. (387J
ous crimes.. This tended to the encouragement
and incrcafe of all kinds of vice. The wicked
were not deterred by any motive of fear from
the commifTion of crimes. Hence we may
eafily conceive how very dangerous fuch a doc-
trine was to fociety, chiefly at a time, when the
voice of confcience was flified by fuperftition^
and reafon and true religion almoft loft in a
crowd of abfurd errors. Whether it was a de-
teftation of this doctrine, and thefe abufes, or
jealoufy, as fome fay, the Auguftin friars made
choice of Luther to preach againfl indulgences^
and thofe who fold them. . The young monkj>
poiTefTed of a lively imagination, and armed
with the flambeau of reafon and fcripture, de-
claimed with great flrength of eloquence againfk
thofe pernicious maxims, pointed out the true
principles of indulgences, cooled the zeal of the
purchafers ; and emboldened by this fuccefsj^
his views went farther.; he difplayed and at-
tacked the ufurpations and errors of the church
of Rome : in a word, he tore off the veil which
hid her vices from the eyes of the world, and
the throne of the pontifl^s began to totten —
Leo, who at firft defpifcd Luther, was a-
larmed at the progrefs of that reformer, and
fummoned him before his tribunal at Rome.
Frederick of Saxony, who protecfled him, ob-
tained the favour of having his caufe tried in
Germany. Luther appeared at the diet of
B b 3 Augfburgj
(388) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
Augfburg, proteded by the emperor Charles'
fafe conduct. Cardinal Cajetan, who was his
judge, refufed to hear him, and would oblige
him to retradl. Luther would not comply,
appealed to a general council, retired fecretly
from Augfburg, and returned into his own
country, attended by many profelytes. Hitherto
Leo had contented himfelf with threatnings ;
but as the reformation increafed, he thundered
out anathemas, and would punifh him, whom
he confidered as the author. The condemna-
tion of the pope denounced againft him, did
but irritate Luther the more. Protedled bj
his fovereign and countrymen, he renewed his
appeal to a general council, treated the pope as
Anti-Chrift, burnt the bull of excommunica-
tion at Wittemberg, attacked the mofl valu-
able dodtrines of the church of Rome, and
fpoke with contempt of her moft folemn cere-
monies. Charles V. at the requefl: of Leo>
ordered the reformer to appear at the diet of
Worms : Luther came, fpoke with a decent
boldnefs, confelTed that his zeal might have
carried him beyond the bounds of a wife mo-
deration; but at the fame time refufed to retradt
his opinions, unlefs they could convince him of
their falfehood. Neither promifes nor threat-
cnings could (hake his refolution. His firm-
nefs alarmed the Romifh clergy ; and it was
propofed to Charles to imitate Sigifmond, who^,
not with-
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (389)
notwithftanding the faith of a fafe condudl, de-
livered John Hufs and Jerome of Prague to the
flames. The emperor, not willing to ftain his
charadler with fo odious a crime, permitted
Luther to retire; but foon after, an edidt ap-
peared in the name of Charles V. forbidding
the princes of the empire to harbour him, and
enjoining them to apprehend him, as foon as
his fafe condudl fhould expire. The elecflor of
Saxony, not daring to protecfl him openly, con-
cealed him in a caftle, by which he was fecured
from the fury of his enemies, had time to digeft
his fyftem, and form a body of do6lrines. His
firft attack was againft the dodrines of the
church of Rome ; he admitted only two facra-
ments, Baptifm and the Lord's Supper, confi-
dering the reft as the invention of felf-intereft,
and adopted by fuperftition. He rejected the
invocation of faints, not only as ufelefs, but ido-
latrous ; prayers for the dead he conlidered as a
fnare to the faithful ; purgatory as an abfurdity
invented by the avarice of the clergy ; and
auricular confeiTion as a ridiculous ceremony.
The doctrines o{ conjiibftantiation^ juftifying faiths
and ' predcfcination, were his favourite tenets.
From dodrines he pafted to the government of
the church. He maintained that the pope has
no authority beyond the diocefe of Rome;
that the jurifdidion of bifhops is founded only
in the choice which Chriftians make. He re-
B b 3 prefented
(390) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
prefented the mofl part of clerical diftincfhions
as the effe(fl of a moft odious tyranny. He
treatrd the opulence of ecclefiaftics as a crimi-
nal ufurpation. He fhewed celebacy to be a
fource of many abufes, and that religious vows
which prevent marriage are contrary to the na^
ture of the gofpel. He opened the cloifters,
caufed the priefts to marry, did himfelf take
Catharine Bore, a nun, to be his wife, exhorted
princes to feize the wealth of the clergy, to take
part of it to themfelves, and with the reft, to
found colleges and hofpitals, to promote national
induftry, and repair the public highways. Thefe
rational and praife^ worthy views engaged the
eledtor of Saxony more than ever to protecfi: him.
From this time Luther had the happinefs to fee
his country embrace his doctrines, and adopt
the reformation. From Saxony, his opinions
palTed into Hefie, which country became alfo
reformed, and a great part of the north of Ger-
many. Multitudes of difciples feconded his
efforts. Melanclhon, one of the fineft geni-
ufTes of his time, was the chief fupport of the
Lutheran reformtaion, and gave it immenfe
refped: by his knowledge and moderation. —
At the fame time, pious and zealous men fpread
the reformed dodlrines through Europe. Bucer
introduced them into the Imperial cities upon
the Rhine; and Olaus into Sweden, his native
country. What triumph for Luther, to fee the
half
Lect. VII. modern history. (391)
half of Europe fhaking off the yoke of Rome;
entire kingdoms adopting his opinions, a pow-
erful party confulting him, and receiving his
decifions with refped: ! How great the glory
of this reformer, to have changed the world,
enlightened the minds of men, reftored primi-
tive Chriftianity, and the ufe of the fcriptures
to all, and to die peaceably in the midft of his
family, without fear, and without remorfe ?
The charadler of the father of the reformation
is excellently well drawn by a celebrated hiito-
rian, and with it I lliall prefent the reader.
Luther died in his native city of Eyfleben, of
an inflammation in his flomach, in the fixty
third year of his age. As that great reformer
was the inflrument of providence in bringing
about a very remarkable and happy revolution
in religion, fo there is the moft ftriking oppofi-
tion in his character as drawn by enemies and
friends. The former, ihocked at his condu6l,
and mad with rage to fee him overturn with a
high hand, all the principles of their faith, and
the objetfls of their veneration and love, have
imputed to him, not only the imperfed:ions and ^
faults of a man, but the qualities of an infernal
fiend. The latter, viewing him as the reflorei .
of Chriftian liberty, and of the purity of the
gofpel doclrine and worfhip, were fo imprefTcd
•with grateful admiration, that they have afcrib-
ed to him fomething more than human perfec-
B b 4 tion.
(292) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
tion, and ha-e viewed his adlions with almoft
the fame veneration, that is due only to thofe of
Jefus Chrift, the prophets and apoftles. " It
** is his own condudi, not the undiftinguifhing
** cenfure or the exaggerated praife of his con-
*' temporaries, which ought to regulate the
'^ opinions of the prefent age concerning him,
•^ Zeal for what he regarded as truth, undaunted
" intrepidity to maintain it, abilities both na--
*' tural and acquired to defend it, and unwearied
^' induflry to propagate it, are virtues which
♦' fhine fo confpicuoufly in every part of his be^
« haviour, that even his enemies muft allow him
** to have pofleiTed them in an eminent degree,
♦^ To thefe may be added with equal juftice,
** fuch purity and even auflerity of manners, as
** became one who alTumed the charader of a
** reformer ; fuch fandlity of life as fuited the
*' doctrine which he delivered ; and fuch perfedt
•' dilintcreftednefs as affords no flight prefump-
** tion of his fincerity. Superior to all felfifh
*' conliderations, a ftranger to the elegancies of
** life, and defpifing its pleafures, he left the
" honours and emoluments of the church to his
♦' dilciples, remaining fatisfied himfelf in his
*' original ftate of profeflbr in the univeriity,
** and paftor of the town of Wittemberg, with
^' the moderate appointments annexed to thefe
♦* offices. His extraordinary qualities were al-
<* laytd with no inconliderable mixture of hu-
^' man
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (393)
" man frailty and human paflions. Thefe how-
" ever, were of fuch a nature, that they cannot
" be imputed to malevolence or corruption of
^ heart, but feem to ha^/e taken their rife from
" the fame fource with many of his virtues.
" His mind forcible and vehement in all its
" operations, roufed by great objedis, or agita-
" ted by violent paflions, broke out, on many
" occafions, with an impetuofity which alio-
nifhes men of feebler fpirits, or fuch, as are
placed in a more tranquil fituation. By carry-
ing fome praife-worthy difpofitions to excefs,
" he bordered fometimes on what was culpable,
" and was often betrayed into adions which ex-
" pofed him to cenfure. His confidence that
" his own opinions were well founded, ap-
*^ proached to arrogance ; his courage in afl^ert-
" ing them to rafhnefs ; his firmnefs in adher-
" ing to them, to obllinacy ; and his zeal in con-
" futing his adverfaries to rage and fcurrility.
" Accuftomed himfelf to coniider every thing
*' as fubordinate to truth, he expedled the fame
*' deference for it from other men ; and without
" making any allowances tor their timidity or
" prejudices, he poured forth againft thofe, who
" difippointed him in this particular, a torrent
** of invective mmglcd with contempt. Re-
^' gardlefs of any diftinclion of rank or charadlei
** when his dodlrines were attacked, he chaflifed
*^ «iU his adverfaries. indifcriminatelv, with the
" fame
(394) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
** fame rough hand ; neither the royal dignity
" of Henry VIII. nor the eminent learning and
*' abilities of Erafmus, fcreened them from the
" fame grofs abufe with which he treated Tetzel
*^ or Eccius.
«' But thefc indecencies of which Luther was
" guilty, muft not be imputed wholly to the
'• violence of his temper. They ought to be
** charged in part on the manners of the age.—
" Among a rude people, unacquainted with
«' thofe maxims, which, by putting continual
" reftraint on the paflions of individuals, have
'* polifhed fociety, and rendered it agreeable,
** difputes of every kind were managed with
** heat, and ftrong emotions were uttered in
«• their natural language, without referve or
*' delicacy. At the fame time, the works of
" learned men were all compofed in Latin, and
*' they were not only authorized, by the exam-
" pie of eminent writers in that language, to
" ufe their antagonifts with the moft illiberal
•* fcurrility; but, in a dead tongue, indecencies
" of every kind appear lefs fhocking than in a
** living language, whofe idioms and phrafes
** feem grofs, becaufe they are familiar.
In.pafTmg judgment upon the charadlers
of men, we ought to try them by the princi-
*' pies and maxims of their own age, not by
** thofe of another. For, although virtue and
f* vice are at all times the fame, manners and
" cuftoma
Lect.VII. modern history. (395)
*' cuftoms vary continually Some parts of
" Luther's behaviour, which appear to us moft
*' culpable, gave nodifguft to his contemporaries.
'^ It was even by fome of thofe qualities, which
" we are now apt to blame, that he was fitted
«' for accomplifhing the great work which he
** undertook. To roufe mankind, when funk
"in ignorance or fuperftition, and to encounter
*' the rage of bigotry, armed with power, re-
** quired the utmofl: vehemence of zeal, and a
" temper daring to excefs. A gentle call
" would neither have reached, nor have excited
" thofe to whom it was addrefied. A fpirit more
" amiable, but lefs vigorous than Luther's,
" would have (hrunk back from the dangers,
" which he braved and furmounted. Tow^ards
" the clofe of Luther's life, though without any
** perceptible declenfion of his zeal or abilities,
" the infirmities of his temper increafed upon
" him, fo that he grew daily more peevifh,
" more irafcible, and more impatient of con-
" tradi(5tion. Having lived to be witnefs of
" his own amazing fuccefs ; to fee a great part
*' of Europe embrace his - dodlrines ; and to
" fhake the foundation of the papal throne, be-
** fore which the mightieft monarchs had trem-
" bled, he difcovered, on fome occalions, fymp-
** toms of vanity and felf-applaufe. He muft
f have been indeed more than man, if, upon
9f contemplating all that he actually accom-
''pliOiedp
f396) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect. VII.
" plifhed, he had never felt any fentiments of
" this kind rifing in his bread.'* *
It is natural to fuppofe that, when the Euro-
pean Chriftians were emancipated from the fla-
very of Rome, and found they might think for
themfelves, that they would not be all of one
mind, with regard to the fpeculative dodiirines
of religion- If the fame ideas make different
imprcffions on the human mind, and if no two
perfons think precifely alike, nor fee objedls in
the fame point of view, how much more is this
the cafe with the opinions and fentiments of a
multitude. This may account for the different
fentiments of our reformers upon fome of the
doclirines of Chriftianity, and for the different
feds of Proteftants at the commencement of
the reformation. But however divided the re-
formed were among themfelves in matters of
little moment, they all agreed to rejecl the au-
thority of the pope. Zuinglius, minifter of
Zurich, in Switzerland, though he embraced
the reformation, rejected confubflantiation, de-
nied the real prefence in the facrament, con-
lidered the doctrine of juftifying faith to be a
dangerous tenet, admitted the merit of good
works which render us really ufeful to our fel-
low men, and went fo far as to maintain that
Socrates, Ariftides, Cato, and all the great men
of antiquity, were not unworthy to enjoy the
prefence
* Robertfon's Hift. of Charles V. vol. Ill, odavo, p. 6^*
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (397)
prefence of God. Predeftination appeared to
him to be a docflrine contrary to reafon, reli-
gion, and good morals. As to other matters,
he agreed with Luther, and embraced his ideas
of the hierarchy of the church. The greatefl
part of Switzerland adopted the fyftem of this
reformer.
John Calvin born in the fouth of France,*
appeared foon after, and may be ranked among
the moft celebrated of the reformers. He
agreed with Zuinglius in rejedling confubflan-
tiation, and the real prefence, but differed from
him as to the merit of good works. He main-
tained, with Martin Luther, the dodlrines of
juftification by faith, and predeftination; but
differed from him in his ideas of church go-
vernment, and was for a democracy, that is,
that all Chriftian minifters are equal in rank
and authority. He wrought a memorable re-
volution in Geneva, where he was revered as an
apoftle, and efteemed the founder of that re-
public. In the opinion of fome, the death of
Michael Servetus, who was burnt at Geneva
for herefy, and in which Calvin had a principal
liand, is an indelible ftain upon his name and
memory. Every fenfible admirer of that re-
former muft be forry that he fhould have given
caufe to brand him with being of a perfecuting
^ fpirit. We of this enlightened age are con-
vinced,
*At Noyon, in the year 1509.
' (39-8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Vll
vinced, that nothing can be more unjuft and
impious, than to inBicl pains and penalties
upon any for his opinions. — But this liberal and
juft fentiment, fo confonant to reafon and the
Chrirtian religion, did not prevail two hundred
years ago. Then opinions confidered as hoflile
to religion, were thought to merit corporal
punifliment ; hence, the death of Servetus muft
be imputed, rather to the errors of the time in
which Calvin lived, than to Calvin himfelf.
Lelius Socinus, and Fauftus his nephew^
adopted the religious opinions of Servetus, ex-
tended them much farther, and publifhed them
to the world. They profcnbed all religious
myfteries, denied the atonement of Jefus Chrift
for fm, and would make Chriftianity entirely
fubjedl to the light of reafon. — They were the
founders of the fedl called Socinians.
The Anabaptifts, who appeared during the
courfe of this period, would introduce into fo-
ciety, a perfedl independence in fpiritual and
temporal affairs. Their contempt of baptifm
gave name to the fecfl, which was compofed of
the lowef^ clafs of mankind. They faw w^ith
indignation a fmall number enjoying the wealth
and honours of this life, reaping the advantage
of their labours, while they themfelves bore the
burthen of fociety. Equality was their cry. —
Twenty thoufand of thefe miftaken people^>
armed with fire and fword, attempted to de-
ftroj-
Lect. VIL modern history, (sg^)
ftroy thofe fubordinations which conftitute the
harmony and happinefs of focicty. Fauftus
and Muncer, Saxons by birth, who eftablifhed
this confederacy in WeRphalia, were fucceeded
by John of Leyden^ a taylor. John, contrary
to his own principles, was naade king by his
followers ; he took the city Munfler, laid wafle
Germany, and was killed by thofe nobles, w hofc
titles and honours he wifhed to annihilate. —
Who could have thought that this mad fed:
would have given birth to the ^lakers F Their
principles and views were the fame ; that is, to
eftablifh a natural equality^ But what differ-
ence in their morals 1 Never was a fed: more
an enemy to all violence, than that of the
^Lakei s ; patience, charity, and moderation, arc
the amiable qualities they poiTefs.
When we behold fo many reformers rife up
in different countries, and almoft at the fame
time, againft the church of Rome, it is natural
toafk what were the motives \^hich animated
them ? The prejudices of enemies, and the too
great zeal of friends and admirers, conceal the
truth, and render it difhcult to be known. —
W^ere oar firfl reformers holy and pious m.en,
influenced by the fole motive of rectifying the
crying abufes which had crept into the Chrif-
tian church, and was it their only wifli, to
tftabliih among Chriflians, the gofpel in its
primitive purity? This is what Proteftants
afiert.
(406) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.YIL
alTert. Read the authors of the communion of
the church of Rome; they reprefent the re-
formers as monfters, whom a fpirit of pride and
libertinifm ilirred up to deflroy all that is
venerable in religion. Is the language of the
one or the other, the language of truth ? Pallion
and blind zeal fee only the extremes. We iliould
judge according to truth, with reafon and
candour ; not under the influence of animofity
and prejudice. At leaft, let us fufpend our
judgment, if we are afraid of being bialTed by
either the one or the other. It is evident from
the condud of the authors of the reformation,
that their motives were good, that they ad:ed
from conviction, and with fincerity. Friends
to the mofi: important interefts of Chriftians,
their only view was to difabufe men of error,
bring them back to the true worfhip of God,
and to that liberty *' wherewith Chrifl: has made
us free." But our reformers were men, and
therefore liable to the imperfedlions of hur^a-
nity. It is pollible that fome vanity, humour,
interefl, might be blended w^ith the zeal of
Luther and Calvin. At fetting out, perhaps,
they did not think to go fo far. Warmed with
the fuccefs which attended their undertaking, it
is pofTible that ambition might have fome fhare
in their deligns. The monalHc life and cele-
bacy were difagreeable to Luther ; this might
be one motive to induce him to preach againft
them.
Lect. VIL modern history. f4or)
them. However, they appear, from the whole
of their charadler and condiid:, to have had
abilities adequate to the work in which they
engaged ; and Proteflants fliould always re-
member them with admiration and gratitude.
Calvin was of irreproachable morals, uniform
in his profeflion and practice, well acquainted
with the nature of an argument, and with the
reafons proper to fupport it; fo that whatever
fault fome may find with his opinions, they
cannot but approve of thefe traits of his charac-
ter.— Zuinglius, though of different fentiments,
was pure and fincere in his intentions. His
fyftem is thought, by many, to be more con-
formable to reafon, and better adapted to gain
thofe of a like temper and difpofition with him-
felf. Melandlhon was a man of extenfivc
knowledge, and of a moft refpedtable character.
When we read his writings, we cannot but
efleem them, and when we reflecl upon his life,
we Cannot but love him.
Many caufes united to effed: a furprifingly
fuccefsful reformation in religion. Thefe were,
the enormous abufes of the church of Rome,
the agitation of the minds of men juft emerged
from a ftate of barbarifm, the general utility of
the dodlrines of the reformation, the revival of
learning, the invention of printing, the intolerant
fpirit which animated the partizans of Rome,
the charader of the popes of that time, the
C c writings
(402) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
writings of Erafmus, in which he expofed the
errors and impieties of his own church; all
thefe contributed to the progrefs of the refor-
mation, and were caufes, in the courfe of pro-
vidence . to overturn the cololTus of papal power.
Perfecution, the means made ufe of to crufh the
reformation, had a quite contrary effed:.—
Francis L Charles V. Henry Vlll. and his
daughter Mary, by their bloody edidls and cruel
feverities, made, perhaps, as may profelytes
to the reformation, as the learning of Luther,
the eloquence of Melan6i:hon, and the reafoning
of Calvin. The human mind oppofes what-
ever would violate the confciencc. The crown
of martyrdom is glorious, and torments cannot
intimidate him, who is convinced he fuffers in
a good caufe. The votaries of the church of
Rome gained very little by the council of Trent.
The Proteftants had earneftly folicited a general
council, but they would not abide by its decrees^
They faid, the pope had regulated all its deci-
lions by his legates and intrigues ; that tempos
ral matters and fecular interefts had been more
attended to than the concerns of religion ; and
the pidlure which father Paul, a Venetian, has
drawn of the council of Trent, juftifies the
complaints of the reformed againft that aiTem-
bly. But thefe were only fecondary caufes ;
the principal and leading caufe of the reforma-
tion from popery, that caufe to which all the
reft
Lect. VIl. MODERN HISTORY. (403)
reft may be reduced, was the fupreme diredlion
of the Divine Being; and a convid:ion of this
upon the mind, will induce Proteftants grate-
fully to acknowledge and thankfully to enjoy
this valuable blefling.
Con/equences of the dijcovery ^1 — The difco-
America and the Indies. } very of Ame-
rica and the Indies opens a large field to a mind
accuftomed to philofophical reflections. The
merchant, who draws his wxalth from India or
the new world, the adventurer, who has made
his fortune in thofe countries, will not hefitate
to aver, that the difcoveries of the Portuguefe
and Columbus have been, and are, of the utmoft
importance to Europe. But the philofopher,
not biaffed by felf-intereft or prejudice, inquires
if this difcovcry has been ufeful to Europe, and
beneficial to the human race. He allows not
himfelf to be (educed by the fpecious reafons
of thofe, who boldly alTert, that it is to the dif-
covery of America, and a way to the Eaft In-
dies by the Cape of Good Hope, that Europe
is indebted for her commerce and civilization.
He doubts the truth of thefe bold affertions. — •
We are informed from hiftory, that commerce
and fecial intercourfe were rapidly increaling
in Europe, before the difcoveries of the Spani-
ards and Portuguefe. Without thefe difcover-
ies, would Europe have been Icfs civilized, lefs
flourifliing and happy, than flie is at prefent ?
. Cc 2 Poflibly,
(404) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIL
Poflibly, the wealth of nations would not have
been fo abundant ; but the wants of men would
have been fewer than they are. An increafe of
fpecie is favourable to luxury^ and luxury mul-
tiplies our wants. Would there not have been
a more equal proportion between the price of
labour and that ef provifions ? Without thefe
difcovcries, the refources in time of war would
not have been fo abundant ; but would there
not have been fewer caufes of war, and would
not the real flrength of a nation have been
greater, by being more united, and having no
diftant pofTeffions to defend? It muft be ac-
knowledged that, thepaffageby the way of the
Cape of Good Hope, has been of great advan-
tage to the general commerce of Europe. The
Arabians, who traded to India, got but a part
of the profit, the whole of which, the Europeans
now enjoy. But has not this advantage been
purchafed with the violation of humanity and
juftice ? The people of Europe, to preferve
pofreflions ufurped from the natural proprietors,
have often put one another to the fword in Ame-
rica, and in the fouth of Afia; and the unhap-
py Indians have, in their turn, been pillaged and
murdered by covetous and inhumane conquer-
ors. Are not thefe difcoveries advantageous to
the manufadlures of Europe? Would not the
ffonfumption of European goods be much lefs,
were there no American and Indian markets to
go
Lect. Vn. MODERN HISTORY. (405)
go to ? By the feveral branches of trade and
manufaulures, millions of people receive an
honeft and comfortable livelihood ; indurtry
and population are increafed, and thefe are the
wealth of nations. The people of Europe are
become more induftrious, and confequently
more happy; for induflry procures, not only
riches, but comfort. In this point of view, the
difcovery of the new world and the Indies has
been of utility to the human race. But when
we refled: upon the violent and unjuft means
employed by the Europeans to plant colonies in
diftant lands; upon the cruelties and outrages
which have been, and fl^ill are, inflided on the
tinhappy people of thofe countries ; when as
men, whom a fordid love of gain has not di-
verted of the feelings of humanity, we ferioufly
conlider the vile traffic in the human fpecies,
which people, called Chrillians, carry on; how
the miferable Africans, torn from their country,
and moil tender cormedions, are reduced to
flavery, and obliged, in the charadler and with
^the treatment of (laves, to cultivate lands, which
their tyrannical mafters have ufurped, and un-
juftly poflefs ; the heart bleeds, and we cannot
help indulging a wifh, that Vafco de Gamaand
Columbus had mifcarried in their defigns. Of
what advantage is the wealth of the whole
world, if to obtain it, the rights of humanity
and juflice are trampled on ? May the people of
C c 3 Europe,
(4o6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VII,
Europe, more humanej equitable, and enlight^
tntdy renounce the maxims of thofe cruel po-
litics which have hitherto directed them, and
reftore to the inh ibitants of every country in
their pofTeflion, the 1 )/:red privileges they re^
ceived from nature ! The healing ai t, fit may be
faid ) is much endebted to the Peruvian bark of
South America. We grant, that this medicine
has been often fuccefsfully ufed as a fpecific in
diforders incident to the human body. But
Europe is infedled with a moft loathfome dif-
eafe, to which flie was a ft ranger before the
difcovery of the new world, a difeafe, the efFedl
of vicious embraces. Some of Columbus' failors
were attacked with it, and by them the conta-
gion was imported into Europe. This venom,
which poifons the fprings of life, is the pro-
duction of America, as the fmall-pox, another
very great evil, made their way to us from
Africa. In the ravages of the venerial difeafe,
we fee the punifhment of unlawful pleafure.
The countries of Europe will never be freed from
it, until the inhabitants learn temperance and
chaflity : a reformation devoutly to be wiflied.
Was America known before Chriftopher
Columbus? By what means was it peopled?
are queftions, concerning which, various con-
jed:ures and fyftems have been formed. The
ancients guefled at the exigence of that hemif-
phere. . The fyftem, which places the iun in the
centre
LicT.VII. MODERN HISTORY. (407)
centre ot our world, was taught in many ancient
fchools of philofophy ; and the learned reader
knows, that this fyflem naturally leads us to
fuppofe antipodes. This opinion had partizans
in the time of St. Auguftin; for that father
oppofed it with very bad arguments. This
truth was condemned in the eighth century ; a
proof that fome believed it even in thofe dark
ages ; but it was no more than conjedlure. It
is not probable that the ancient navigators,
without the afliilance of the compafs, and who
made only coailing voyages, durfl traverfe the
immenfe ocean w^hich feparates the two hemif-
pheres. — As to the Atlantic Illand mentioned
by Plato, it was only a lively fiction of his own
imagination. All the glory of this difcovery
mufl" be afcribed to the knowledge, intrepidity,
and emerprifing genius of Columbus, notwith-
ftanding all that envy could invent to deprive
him of it.
Many writers have laboured to find out by
what means America was firft peopled ; but
their different fyftems do not afford that con-
vidlion which lemoves all doubt. This is a
problem which, perhaps, cannot be folved; or
if it is capable of folution, nothing but true
philofophy can do it.
Governments, — Defpotifm and flavery were
gradually introduced among the nations ot
Europe. The very means made ufe of to pre-
G c 4 fcrve
f408) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
fcrve national liberty, often became the inflru-
ment of its deftruclion. Under whatever fprm
of government men live, they have always the
jufleft reafons to dread the ufurpations of the
executive power. If this power is hereditary,
as in monarchies, every ambitious prince en-
deavours to enlarge his prerogatives. If it h
only for life, or a limited time, as in an elec-
tive monarchy, or republic, the prince, the
magiftrate, or families chofen to exercife the
fupreme authority, feek rather to perpetuate
than enlarge their power. Thus we have feen,
during the courfe of this period, the houfe of
Auftria infenfibly forging chains for Germany,
and endeavouring to make the imperial power
hereditary in that family. Maximilian, by the
manner in which he divided the circles, paved
the way to this fubje6lion. Charles V. his
grandfon, whofe ideas were more comprehen-.
live, carried on the work very rapidly, and, had
not the reformation taken place, would have
finifhed it. For, notwithftanding the efforts of
the Proteflants, the emperor, by humbling the
houfe of Saxony, and fowing lafting difcord
among the different branches of that family,
when he transferred the electorate to the young-
er brother, undetermined the liberties of the
Germanic body, and prepared thofe chains,
-with which his fucceflbrs bound it,
la
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (409)
In France, though the bounds of the royal
Authority were much enlarged, yet the external
appearance of liberty was ftiil preferved. 7 he
nobility (till enjoyed fome prerogative. By'
uniting with the lower orders in the ftate, they
could flop, or at leaft diminifh, the progrefs of
defpotifm. But under Francis I. the nobility
loll their power. He annihilated their rights;
and this being done, it was not difficult to
humble thofe of inferior rank. New regulations
for raifing and maintaining the troops, brought
the army to be fubjecl to the throne. The
clergy were fubjedled by the abolition of the
Pragmatic fandlion, becaufe the dignitaries of
the Gallican church, were obliged to apply to
the king for favours. The fale of employments,
introduced in the reign of Francis L was a
terrible blow to public liberty. And this prin-
ciple of corruption, which infed:ed the whole
mafs, being extended under the fuccelfors of
Francis, deftroyed, in France, every idea of a
popular government.
The Englifh fcem to have forgotten the grand
objedl of all their former flruggles. England
loft its energy. Henry and Mary trampled
upon the liberties of the people. The parlia-
ment, hitherto the guardian of the nation*s
rights, became the cowardly inftrument of the
injuftice and cruelties of their mailers.
Sweden,
f4J0) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIL
Sweden, Spain, Florence, Milan, were in this
period, nations blindly fubmiffive to their re-
fpedlive monarchs. Liberty appeared to have
taken refuge in Switzerland and Geneva.
There was not any remarkable revolution in
the fouth of Europe. Charles V. was indebted
to his alliances for his great power : he knew
how to maintain them. But who knows w here
this ambitious prince would have ftopt, had not
Francis I. Solyman, and Luther, lived in his
time? Perhaps, political knowledge, which then
began to increafe in Europe, might have been
capable to check his ambition. The other
powers felt the necefiity of a political balance.
What would have become of the liberties of
Europe, without the wife conducl of Henry
VIIL and the Venetians after the battle of Pavia?
Legijlation, — Legiflation was much improved
in the iixteenth century. AlmofI: all the ftates
of Europe introduced excellent regulations,
which reformed old abufes. Particular hifto-
ries contain a detail of the progrefs of jurifpru-
dence in Germany. The ufeful laws which
were made in England in the ftormy reign of
Henry VIIL The wufe onionnances which
appeared in France, tended to promote the
happinefs of both nations ; though, in the latter
kingdom, thefe could not heal the evil occa-
iioned by the fale of employments. Anthony
Duprat, by aboiifhing eledions^ the only way to
furnifh
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (41 1 )
furmfli able and upright magiflrates to a nation,
and thinking he could fell the right of judging
caufes, was the author of the humiliation of the
French nation.
Manners. — Superficial minds, who view only
particular facts, without attending to the chaia
of events, alTert, that the manners of Europe,
during the lixteenth century, were fevere, in-
humane, and cruel. The bloody executions
authorized by fuperftition, and the horrid cru-
elties exercifed in America by the Spaniards,
feem to jullify this idea. But let us not judge
of mankind in general, by the barbarities of in-
dividuals. The fierce conquerors of the new
world were moftly adventurers, who, being
kept within bounds in Europe by the laws,
gave free fcope in diftant countries, to that
cruel difpofition they could not indulge in their
native land. They were mollly the dregs of the
Spanilli nation. Is it not then unjuft to impute
to a whole people the crime of a few indi-
viduals? We would by no means lelTen the
horror which thefe fcenes of cruelty naturally
excite in the feeling and virtuous mind. None
can juftify the avarice and barbarity of the
Spanifh conquerors of Mexico and Peru ; the
falfe and cruel policy of the court of Spain,
who, to preferve thofe rich countries, put to
death millions of innocent and defencelefs in-
Jiabitants. Wc are filled with iudignatioii
, when
(412) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Vlf.
when we read of the bloody effeds of fanaticifm
and cruelty. But at the fame time, we cannot
help obferving, that in the age of Columbus, a
happy change took place in the minds and man-
ners of men. It was in the fixteenth century,
that barbarous wars became lefs frequent.—
Treachery was lefs common, poifon was not fo
much ufed, revolutions happened but feldom,
and the influence of fuperlhtion much decreaf-
ed. The facred throne of the pontiffs, which at
its pleafure, turned the Chriflian world upfide
down, was almoft annihilated. Indeed, the
papal throne facrificed innocent vidlims in the
following ages ; but, fince the time of the re-
formation, it has no longer been a fan(ftuary,
from whence fuperftition could brave the uni-
ted efforts of light and reafon.
Navigation and Commerce. — Navigation and
commerce, which increafe the wealth of nations,
were brought to a high degree of perfection in
this period. The Phcsnicians and Carthageni^
ans among the ancients, and the Venetians
among the moderns, never had fuch bold and
celebrated navigators as Columbus, Balbao,Al-
mieda, Sebaftian Cabot, Vafco de Gama, and
Albuquerque. The many difcoveries made by
thefe encerprifing men, promoted the extcnfion
of commerce, and revived a fpirit of induftry
in Europe. Seville and Lifbon became the
emporiums of the world. Spain and Portugal
pofreffed
Lect.VII. modern history. (413)
pofTefTed more money than all the other nations
of Europe, Yet thefe two kingdoms have not
ceafed to decline fince the difcovery of America
and the Indies. Thefe are the caufes. The
vices which attend too much wealth, corrupted
all ranks, and enervated the national fpirit;
dazzled with the heaps of gold w hich they drew
from their mines, they negledled agriculture
and induftry, the molt certain fources of the
prolperity of kingdoms. Their riches have
made them poor, while their indolence has en-
riched other nations.
Sciences y— Belles Lettres, — Fine Arts. — The
fciences made rapid progrefs in the fixteenth
century. Jurifprudence flourifhed, particularly
in Italy and France. The fcience of anatomy
was much improved. VefTaliuSi a Fleming,
defcribed all the veflels, great and fmall, of the
human body ; an Italian anatomifl made fome
ufeful difcoveries in the organ of hearing, and
Fallopius, of Modena, in the fyftem of gene-
ration.— Mcdccine was much indebted to Lina-
cer, who perfuaded cardinal Wolfcy, his friend,
to build the firfl medical college that was
in England. In Spain, the unfortunate Michael
Servetus divined the circulation of the blood :
Fernel and Sylvius, in France, gave medical
lecflures, which were attended by feveral thou-
fands : — In Italy, Roger Carpo difcovered the
true fpeciiic for that terrible malady, which
deflroys
(414) MODERN HISTORY. Lfecr. VU,
deflroys thefourccs of mankind ; and the famous
Fracaftor was the moft celebrated phyfician in
the iixteenth century.-^Chemiflry was alfo fuc^
cefsfully cultivatedi Paracelfus, of Switzerland^
did not improve this fcience by his experiments ;
but the Flemifli Van Helmont made fome ufe-
ful chemical difcoveries.
Gefner, a German, cultivated natural hiftory*
His treatife upon animals, though not equal to
fome later productions of the feme kind, is not
dellitute of merit. Fufchius, a Bavarian, made
botany his fludy, and his hiftory of plants
is ftill efteemed. Hernandez, a Spaniard,- who
was both a natural hiftorian and botanifl, has
defcribed the animals and plants peculiar to
\America. Copernicus, of Thorn, in Poland,
taught the true fyftem of aftronomy. Walter,
a German, perceived the refradion of the rays
of light ; Werner, determined the degrees of
obliquity in the ecliptic ; and Francis Fernel^
durft meafure the earth.— Mathematics were
not negledled. Commendin, an Italian, Tonftal,
an Englifhman, and many others, were excellent
mathematicians.- — — Guichardini, Machiavel,
Bembo, and Sleidan, were hiftorians of the iix-
teenth century, and their works ihew them to
have been well acquainted with the nature of
hiftorical compofition. Befides thefe, many
eminent literary charadlers appeared in the fame
period.— Julius Scaliger, Sir Thomas More,
Eiafmus,
Lect. VII. MODERN HISTORY. (415)
Erafmus, are names celebrated in the republic
of letters ; names, with which the intelligent
reader mufl be well acquainted. The Italian
language was improved by many, chiefly by
the immortal Ariofto. Letters we cultivated
with amazing fuccefs in England, France, and
Spain, not only by learned men» but by ladies
of illuftrious rank.
Italy was the feat of the fine arts in the lix-
teenth century. Bramante drew the plan of St.
Peter's church at Rome, Michael Angelo
ereCled a cupola upon that magnificent edifice,
the boldnefs and tafte of which furprife the
fepeclator. That fublime artift built fuperb
churches, fumptuous palaces, and laid out the
mofl: enchanting gardens. All the cities of Italy
were embellifhed by men of tafie and knowledge
in the fine arts ; and artchitedure arrived at
great perfection. The fame Michael Angelo
gave to marble with his chiffel, fymmctry,
beauty, and what form he pleafed, and revived
the works of Praxiteles and Phidias ; whilfl
another artift animated bronze, and made it
receive the impreffion of the mofl: imperceptible
features.
The fixteenth century faw four celebrated
Italian fchools for painting. Michael Angelo
fhone at Florence. As perfect in the art of
painting, as in thofeof artchited:ure and fculp-
ture, he gave the canvafs a (trength of exprellion,
a liveli-
f4i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VII.
alivelinefs and enthufiafm, peculiar to himfelf.
His fcholars imbibed his fpirit, and did honour
to fo great a mafler. Titian and Tintoret
fhone in the Venetian fchool, and Corregio in
that of Lombard/. But Raphael made the Ro-
man fchool flill more famous. His paintings
ihew a corredtnefs of deiign, a richnefs of order, a
juftnefs of expreflion, and an elevation of ideas,
not to be found in the works of any other paint-
er. He bore away the palm, and perhaps he
remains without an equal in his art. He form-
ed feveral great men, who became his rivals.
Flanders had fome good artifts. Heemflcerke,
John of Leyden, and Van Horley, are names,
not unknown, in the hiftory of the fine arts. —
Holben, the fcholar of Albert Durer, made
himfelf celebrated in Germany. Invited to
London, he enriched that city with many excel-
lent pieces of painting. Henry VIII. was his
patron and proteclor. Trorri Italy, a tafte for
the fine arts, w^as deffufed through Europe. The
artifts of that country were entertained, reward-
ed, and honoured by many fovereigns ; and, by •
their labours, the Gothic genius retired from
the principal cities of Europe, and was replaced
by that of Greece and Rome.
LECTURE
Lect.VIIL modern history. f4i7}
LECTURE VIIL
Religions e 51 s—Revolutmis in Kingdoms — Go^
Vfrnments — Legiflation — Mechanic Arts — -Sci^
ences — Philofopby — Polite Literature — Fine
Arts,
Religion.— T^ROy[l\\Q. middle of the fixteenth
^ to the beginning of the feven-
teenth century, that is, from the death of Charles
V. to that of Elizabeth, and Henry the Great,
of France, fcenes of confuiion and blood agita-
ted and defolated a great part of Europe. — —
Religion was the pretext ; but it is wrong to
impute to Chriftianity evils which were the
confequence of the prejudices, pafTions, and
interefls of men. A fpirit of frenzy, fury,
and intolerance, feized all parties. The rage
of fanaticifm was let loofe, and animated both
Proteflants and Roman Catholics. Familiar-
ized with the idea of civil and religious tole-
ration, taught by experience how beneficial its
efFeclsareto fociety, weof this enlightened age
cannot conceive, how men could be capable
of fuch excelTes, merely for fpeculative opi-
nions. To fandcicn violent, bloody, and gene-
ral perfecutions by public authority, appears to'
tis incredible. Why were not the Chriflians of
the fixteenth century perfuaded that religion
$• Da mould
(41 8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII.
fbould be a bond of union, and not an inftru-
ment of difcord ? that it fhould banifh fupeifti-
tion, difarm fanaticifm, and not excite men to
butcher one another. Thefe truths, fo evidently
clear to us, were far from being fo two centuries
ago. The facred rights of confcience were not
then underflood. The precious liberty of
thinking for ourfelves, that liberty inhei ent in
man, was altogether unknown. Chriftians had
no idea of toleration ; they did not even under-
ftand the word, at leafl: in the fenfe we do.
What could be the caufe of this ? Let us try to
give a proper anfwcr ta the queflion.
Among the ancient Heathens, whofe gods
were numerous and local, it does not appear
that diverfity of fentiments concerning the ob-
jedl of their worfhip, was ever the caufe of any
animofity, much lefs of religious wars. By
paying religious worfhip to one divinity, they"
did not deny the exiftence and power of others,
and the religious ceremonies of one country
were not incompatable with thofe of another.
Thus their difference of opinion in matters of
religion did not produce a fpirit of difcord. —
Mutual toleration and peace prevailed among
the Pagans, notwithflanding the number of
their gods, and the endlefs variety of their re-
ligious ceremonies. But when the preachers
of the gofpel announced to the world the Su-
preme Being as the alone objed; of religious
adoration.
Lect. VITI. MODERN MISTORY. (419)
i&doration, and prefcribed to men the form of
worfhip mod: conformable to his nature and per-
fedlions, all who em.braced this dodlrine, were
to believe the worfliip of the Heathen abfurd
and impious. Hence the firft Chriflians de-
claimed againfl idolatry, and exhorted men to
forfake the wordiip of thofe who were no gods,
and to worfhip the Divine Being who made
heaven and earth. But when Ghriflianity be-
came, by the edidl of Conflantine, the religion
of the Roman empire, though there were innu-
merable converts, yet many were ftill attached
to the ancient worfhip. The obftinacy of thofe
who would not renounce Heathenifm, on the
one hand, and the miftaken zeal of Chriflians
►on the other, engendered a fpirit of pcrfecution.
■ — The Heathen emperors had perfecuted the
Chriftians, and the Chriflians, when invefted
with power, became perfecutors in their turn ;
inflead of profelyting thofe who were ftili
Heathens, by mildnefs and perfualion, they
armed againft them the fecular authority, and
vvould force them to believe.
Difputes arofe among Chriftians themfelves.
— Controverfies concerning many articles of
faith multiplied, and the fame feverities were
employed againft heretics, that had been mlde
ufe of againft infidels and idolaters* Each parry
endeavoured to fecure the power of the civil
m?giftratc, and Chriftians openly perfecuted
D d 2 each
(420) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL
each other. To put an end to thefe fcm-
dalous divilions, and to fatisfy their ambition,
the bifhops of Rome pretended to infalHbility,
which gave them a right to explain the articles
of faith, and finally to determine all controver-
fies. — However bold and unjufi: this preteniion
might be, the popes knew how to improve, to
their own advantage, the credulity of thofe who
believed it. Perhaps they thought it neceflary
to have a tribunal which might decide all reli-
gious difputes: however that maybe, the re-
medy was worfe than the difeafe. Indeed,
religious wars originated from a diverfity of
opinions among Chriftians, and a want of cha-
rity. But what was the confequence of the .
fupremacy of the popes ? Ignorance and a ne-
glect of every duty and virtue. Chriftians were
forced to fubmit to all that this pretended in- ,
fallible tribunal decreed. Doubt was conlider-
cd as a crime, and vengeance was always fuf-
pendedovQr the head of the unwary.
Europe had borne, for feveral centuries, thia
yoke of fpiritual defpotifm. None durft call in
queftion the authority upon which it was
founded. But when the reformation took
place, the general opinion was, that thofe who
were in poirciTion of the true religion, might
employ 'force to extirpate error; * and as each
fed: believed they were pofTelfed of the truth,
fo
* See the covenants called Natignal and Solemn League.
Lect. VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (42 if
fo all pretended to enjoy the privileges annexed
to it. The Roman Catholics, who relied upon
the decifions of an infallible judge, never doubt-
ed but truth was on their lide, and oppofed the
public authority to all innovators. The-
Protellants, no lefs perfuaded of the truth of
their docftrine, were as zealous to engage the
princes of their party to punifh thofe who pre-
fumed to oppofe the progrefs of their opinions,
Thus feveral. of our reformers Ihewed too
much of a perfecuting fpirit, and fometimes
inflided upon their oppofers, the very fame
kind of punifhment, the church of Rome had
inflided upon thofe who withftood her ufurpa-
tions.
Lutheranifm made but flow progrefs after the
death of its founder. The dodlrines and church
difcipline of Calvin, got the afcendency among
the reformed. Many powerful princes of Ger-
many conformed to the worfnip of the apoitle of
Geneva. England, Scotland, the Protertants in
France, the Seven United Provinces, embraced
Calvinifm, In England, Elizabeth, in adopting
the dodrincs of Calvin, retained a good deal of
the pageantry of the church of Rome, particu-
larly a diflindion of ranks among the clergy ;
becaufe (he was fond of pomp, and thought that
the orders of archbilliop, bidiop, &c. in the
church (fhe being the fupreme headj would
make all her fubjeds more obedient. Hence
D d 3 \vc
(422) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
we find in the church of England, alnQoft the
fame hierarchy that there is in the church of
Rome, and a great part of her ceremonies.- — —
The zealous Proteflants deny that the queen
was influenced by any human motive to intro-
duce Calvinifm into her dominions. Convic-
tion, and the force of truth, fay they, perfuaded
her to embrace the reformation. This is the
language of zeal without juft refledion; but
hiftory indulges no fuch prejudices, it attends
to truth, and judges by fadls. Hiftory thus re-
prefents the celebrated Elizabeth. Born of a,
marriage, believed by one half of Chriftians tp
be unlawful, her right to the crown had been
fet aiide by her father's edid:, and that edidl
confirmed by the general affembly of the nation.
Indeed Henry's lafl: will appeared to re-eftablifli
it ; but the doubts concerning the legitimacy of
her birth were not removed. In the reign of
her brother, an audacious protedor had at-
tempted to facrifice her to his ambition.
Freed from this danger, fhe had been expofed
to a greater under the fuperflitious Mary, whom
bigotry and jealoufy prompted to maltreat
Elizabeth. Wrongfully accufed, fhe had been
confined in the Tower, where (he, more than
once, ran the rifk of lofing her life. Jn this fitu-
ation, fhe alleviated her di ft re lies by improving
her mind with knowledge. The people, who
^puld not difcover in Mary any of thofe quali-
ties
Lect. VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (423)
ties which fhone in Elizabeth, were greatly at-
tached to her; but their love and attachment
to Elizabeth ferved only to irritate her fifler
the more againft hsr, and (he would certainly
have fallen a facrifice to Mary's hatred, had not
Philip, from political views, fufpended the bar-
barous blow. The courfe of thefe misfortunes
was ftopt by the death of Mary. Having
afcended the throne of England, Elizabeth faw
her fubjeds divided into two factions, enemies
to each other. The Catholics, who governed
in the council, and enjoyed the great offices of
flate, appeared to be the moft powerful ; where-
as the reformed, whom the tyranny and intole-
rance of Mary had overwhelmed with diilrefs,
were, to appearance, without real ftrength. —
However, they were the moft numerous, and
the nation in general inclined to the reforma-
tion. Perhaps Elizabeth herfelf was indifferent
with regard to the Roman Catholic or Protef-
tant doc^lrines and worfliip; but it was necef-
fary to determine for the one or the other.
She conddered them only as for or againft her
intereft as a fovereign. Her friends had been
the fupport of the reformation, many of whom
had been put to death ; her enemies had pro-
moted and fupported popery. The Catholics
had always denied the legitimacy of her birth,
;ind confequently doubted the validity of her
title to the crown ; therefore her particular in-
D d 4 tereft
(424) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIIL
tereft would influence her to deterirdne againfl
Rome. So would aifo her charadcer. Of a
haughty temper, Ihe faw, with indignation,
crowned heads proflrate at the feet of the Ro-
miih pontiff. Vindicflive, how could fhe forget
the bulls of excommunication thundered againll
)ier father ? Jealous of her authority, it gave
laer pain to fee m her dominions numbers of
e*|ccleliafl:ics obedient to the See of Rome. It
has been faid that Elizabeth was inclined to
deifm. If this be true, it was more natural to
prefer a religion which has fewer myfteries,
and is more agreeable to reafon. The intereft
of the ftate v/as joined to all thefe confiderations.
Elizabeth wifely reckoned a prudent oeconomy
among the chief virtues of a fovereign. The
immenfe wealth of the clergy, with which fhc
might enrich her exchequer, would attradl her
notice. Confidering population as the fource
of the profperity of nations, and that the celi-
bacy of the clergy diminifhes it, fhe would view
tlu^ reformation, v^hich allows all to marry, in a
favourable light. She would behold the cloi-
fters, as the bane of fociety, of the flate, and of
indiiftry. Tlicic reafons were fufficient to in-
cline her to embrace the reformed religion.^:—.
She did not, however, difcovcr her fentiments,
till after the imperious PauliV. had contemptu-
oufly rejeded her fubmiiTion, treated her birth
as fpurioiis, ordered her to defccnd from the
throncj
Lect.VIII. modern history. (425)
throne, and put her crown into his hands, that
he might difpofe of it as he pleafed. The
pope's impudence highly provoked Elizabeth,
ifhe broke off all connexion with Rome, and
publicly declared for the reformation. The
Catholic religion was profcribed by the parlia-
ment. The religious edifice of her filter was
razed to the foundation, and taking the title of
fupreme head of the church of England, flie
planned and executed a particular form of reli-
gion. She received the doclrines of Calvin,
but retained a part of the ancient ceremonies,*
convinced, no doubt, that external fplendour
renders religion more auguft in the eyes of its
votaries, and attaches them moi-e clofely to its
maxims.
Independence and a rigid aufi^erity were the
characteriilics of Calvinifm in the fixteenth
century. And the reafon of this might be; it
was introduced by men, who were enemies to
luxury, either from principle, or becaufe their
fituation in life would not allow them to in-
dulge it ; by men, who were enem.ies to clerical
power, the feverity of which they had felt. —
Convinced of the falfenefs of the dodrines au-
thorized bv the church of Rome, and animated
with zeal, the Calvinifis preached powerfully
againfl: them ; nay, fo averfe were they to pope-
ry, that in a tranfport of paflion, rather than
true zeal, they robbed the churches of their
ornaments.
(4i6) MODERN HISTORY. LECT.Vill.
ornaments, profcribed the liturgy, broke crof-
fcsy tore the clerical robes, and deftroyed thofe
diftinctions which the cuftoms of many ages
had ellabliihed. The unbridled fury of the
Calvinifiic reformers carried them by much too
far, and its effedls mufl: ftill be lamented. Had
they conducted themfelves as reafonable men,
many noble piles of building, and fine pieces of
painting, would ftill have remained. It was
under this form that Calvinifm was introduced
into Holland, Switzerland, Scotland, and France.
In the two laft kingdoms the reformation was
attended with many troubles, The French
Proteftants, weary with fuffcring, and forced,
by the molt cruel treatment, to come to ex-
tremities, refolved to feize the firft opportunity
to oppofe and flop their perfecutors. The fe-
verities of the inquifition which cardinal dc
Guife employed againfl them, without regard
to age, fex, or rank ; the death of Anne du
Bourg, a magiilrate, venerable for his know-
ledge and integrity, who was treated as the vileft
criminal, only becaufe he embraced the refor-
mation, produced the famous confpiracy of
Amboife, fo fatal to a thoufand Proteilant gen-
tlemen who were charged with the execution of
it, and which would have coft Conde his life,
had not the death of Francis changed the face of
affairs. At the commencement of the reign of
Charles IX. the jealoufy which Catharine de
Medicis
Lect.VIII. modern history. (427)
Medicis entertained of the Guifes was favour-
able to the Proteflants. The conference of
PoiiTy, in which Beza was fo greatly fuperior
to cardinal de Guife in point of argument, pro-
cured them liberty of confcience, and equal
privileges with the Catholics ; but this only
increafed the hatred of the Guifes, who fought
their deftrud:ion. They had emilTaries in every
part of the kingdom, who made the people be-
lieve, that the Catholic religion was in danger
under a weak government. The Conflable
Montmorenci, the Marefhal de St. Andre, and
Anthony of Navarre, a weak prince, were
gained to their party. Thefe three lords form-
ed a triumvirate, and folemnly engaged to de-
fend the Catholic religion from its enemies, and
the ennerprifes of the throne. From that mo-
ment the minds of men wxre ftrongly agitated,
hatred and difcord were kindled in every part
of the kingdom, all tended to produce a civil
war, and the two Guifes wanted only an oppor-
tunity to force the Proteftants to take up arms.
The malTacre of Hxty Proteftants at Vafli, by
the partizans of the duke of Guife, produced
the event fo much wifhed for by the fadlious.
Conde, the protestor of the reformed, demand-
ed of the court the punifhment of fo atrocious
^ crime ; but Catharine, who dreaded the hatred
of the Catholics, refufed to do jultice. Conde,
enraged at this refufal, took up arms and invited
J>i5
(428) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII,
his party to join him. The admiral Coligni haf-
tencd to the prince; D'Andelot,and the cardinal
deChatillon, the admiral's brother, came with
the Protellants of La Beauce; the brave La
Nouewasat the head of the Bretons, and Rohan
condaclcd the reformxed of the fouthern pro-
vinces. The Catholic army was commanded
by the confiable and the duke of Guife ; and the
firfl battle was fought in the plains of DreUx,
with all the fury of religious fanaticifm. The
cowardly alTalTination of the duke of Guife at
Orleans, ftopt the progrefs of the Catholics.
The peace of Moulins re do red to the Frotefiants
their privileges, and the kingdom became tran-
quil. The reformed, contented with the free
exercife of their religion, behaved themfeives
as peaceable citizens and faithful fubjeds, and
requefted permiftion to go and retake Havre de
Grace, which the Englifn had furprifed. But
the fufpicious ambition of Catharine de Medicis,
foon raifed new llorms. Jealous of Conde, as
Ihe had been of Guife, fhe endeavoured to
humble him by crufhing the Proteflants, whofe
affedtion for this prince was very great. She
began with depriving the Proteflants of their
rights which had been lately rellored, and this
was foon followed by bloody outrages. They
demanded juftice, and v/ere refufed; and the
violent treatment of the reformed^ ended in an
open perfecution. The injuftice and perfidy of
^ the
Lect.VIII. modern history. (429.)
the court again obliged the Proteftants to have
recourfe to arms. Conde and Coligni founded
an alarm, and civil war commenced anew. A
bloody battle fought near St. Denis, incrcafed
the animoiity of the two parties. The perfidi-
ous Catharine lulled the Proteftants alleep with
the peace of Lon-Jumeau. Accufiomed to
violate the moft facred oaths, fhe fent her
guards to arreft Conde. The war was renewed,
and torrents of blood flowed in France. The
Calvinifts were much weakened by the lofs of
Conde, who was killed in cold blood after the
battle of Jarnac, and by their defeat at Mont-
Contour. Coligni, at the head of the German
troops, revived his party, and obliged Catha-
rine, to receive the law from the Proteftants.
From that time Catharine, who before had
fliewn an, indifference to all religious feds,
conceived an implacable hatred againft Calvin-
ifm, and laid a plan to exterminate the Protef-
tants, which ftie executed by means of the mofl
horrid perfidy ever praclifed* The admiftion
of Coligni into the council, and the marriage
of the young king of Navarre with t^ie fifter
ot Charles IX. removed all miftruft from the
Proteftants. They believed the reconciliation
fmcere, and continued in their fatal fecurity^
till the frightful maflacre of St. Bartholomew
awakened them.* la it furprifing that the Pro-
teftants>
* The maflacre of the Proteftants at Paris happened o»
St, Bartholomew's Day, 1572.
(430) MODERN HISTORY. LEcx.VIIf,
teftants, after this diabolical butchery, ihould
defpair of fuccefs ? Montauban gave the fignal
of revenge, Sancerre followed the example; and
Rochelle, become the chief retreat of the Pro-
teiiants, was defended with a courage, of which
there are few examples. A treaty, favourable to
the reformed, fufpended hoflilities. Charles IX.
who died in the twenty-fourth year of his age,
was fucceeded by Henry III. eledted king of
Poland. No fooner was he feated on the throne
than he attacked the Proteftants ; but having
mifcarried in an attempt upon a town not
flrongly fortified, he made peace with them.
This peace was quickly broken by the French
king, who having treacheroufly furprifed Mon-
brun, chief of the Calvinifts in Dauphine, con-
demned him to be hanged ,• put Henry of Guife
at the head of his armies, and oppofed him to
the Proteftants commanded by the king of
Navarre ; became jealous of the duke of Ter-
rain, and fuddenly put an end to hoflilities,
by a peace, fhameful to himfelf, and honour-
able to the reformed. Then the league was
formed, and fanaticifm, animated with an un-
bounded ambition, was carried to the greatefl:
excefs. The refllefs fpirit of Catharine dc
Medicis, the ambition of the Guifes, and the
blind zeal of the Catholic clergy, forced the
Calvinifts, much againft their will, to take up
arms and make war. This is evident from a
dedudliort
Lect.VIII. modern history. (431)
dedudlion of hillorical facls. Hence, the brave
La Noue, defpairing of being able to reconcile
his duty to his king with what he owed to the
reformed religion and the Proteflants, fought
death in the field of battle, but was prevented,
in fpite of his heroic itiadnefs, from throw-
ing his life away. Coligni, who lofl his va-
luable and illuflrious life by the fwords of bafe
aflaflins, direcTred the French councils by his
wifdom, increafed the marine and commerce
of France and laid down that political plan
which Henry IV. brought to perfection. Rofni,
Mornay, Florent Chretien, were Protefl^ants of
great knowledge, and of the mofi: refpedlable
character. — France never produced more virtu-
ous men.
The dodlrines and church difcipline of Cal-
vin were introduced into Scotland, in oppofi-
tion to the governing powers ; and this, as in
France, was the caufe of confufion and trouble.
The Scotch, defirous of religious liberty, con-
ceived a very ftrong averfion to popery, and
Cardinal Beaton's unjuft fentence executed up-
on Hamilton and Wifhart, furniflied them with
an opportunity to accompliih their wilhes. —
They facrificed Beaton to their revenge, and
credled the flandard of the reformation. Many
of the nobility, who were enemies to the queen
mother, Mary of Guife, then regent of Scot-
land, joined them. John Knox, who had im-
bibed
(432) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL
bibed the dodtrines and difcipline of Geneva;
was fent for ; he returned to Scotland, and be-
came head of the reformation. *-
The queen regent endeavoured to prevent the
reformation from taking place in Scotland,
She fent for troops from France, but the par-
liament obliged her to fend them home, fo that
(he could not accomplifh her defigns. Pro-
teftantifm gained ground, the Catholic religion
was aboliflied, and the dodrines and difcipline
of the Scotch kirk miodelled upon the Geneva
plan.*
The Scotch reformers abhorred the creed and
worfbip of the church of Rome, and their zeal
for the deftrudion of both was ilrongly mark-
ed. They were not only convinced of her
errors in dodlrine, but thought her v. orfhip fo
polluted, that every thing employed in it ought
to be deftroyed. With this convidion, their zeal
carried them much beyond the bounds of mo-
deration, and made them adl as furious bigots,
not as reformers. They paid no refpect to what
was grand and venerable, nor did they diftin-
guilh between what it elTential to religion, and
what
* Tlie reformation was not fully eftabllfhed in Scotland,
till the reign of James VI. when the king, the noblhty, and'
the reft of his fubjeds, entered into an agreement, called the
National Covenant, by which they bound themfelves to extir-
pate popery, and fettle the national reh'gion according to the
reformed plan.
Lect.VIII. modern history. (433)
what is only an appendage : all went to wrecko
To fancflify thofe violences, texts of fcripture
were quoted, and the examples of men, under
the Jewifh oeconomy, adduced. The condudt
of Phineas, who killed a prince of Ifrael, and a
Midianitifh woman, was produced as in point;
that of the Ifraelites, who exterminated the
inhabitants of Canaan ; Samuel, who hewed aii
infidel king in pieces ; Jehu, who put to the
fword the royal families of Ifrael and Judah.
Hence, the Scotch reformers appear to have
been perfuaded in good earneft, that it was
their duty to exterminate, by whatever means
they could, ail who, in matters of religion,
thought differently from what they did ; that
the moft meritorious adion in the fight of God,
is, to flifle the voice of nature, level all ranks
in fociety, and chiefly to deflroy churches, al-
tars, paintings, &c. Taking the principles of
Calvin in their moft rigid fenfe, they abolillied
all ceremonies, confidered the moft innocent re-
creations as criftiinal, and the leaft toleration of
the rites of the church of Rome, as a horrid
abomination. They aflumed an auftere and
gloomy demeanour, fpoke in myftical terms,
little accordant with the true fenfe of the doc-
trines and precepts of Chriftianity ; and they,
more than once, impofed upon the credulity of
the vulgar, in a way fi milar to what the Catho-
Ec lig
(434) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.YIIL
lie priefts had doncf But, in excufe for the
condud: of the Scotch reformers, we may al-
ledge the times in which they lived, thefe were
dark compared with the prefent; Chriftians
Were then deftitute of liberahty of fentiment ;
and where this is wanting, grofs abufes and
cruelties are committed under the name of re-
formation. They were fo violently irritated
againft the Catholic religion, that they thought
. they could not do too much for its deftrudlion,
and under the influence of paflion, ftopt at no-
thing to gratify it : befides, thefe exceifes were
committed by the mob, who, in all their pro-'
ceedings, pay no attention to what is reafonable
and juft.
The Proteflant and Catholic churches were
difturbed at the fame time, with difputes con-
cerning predeftination and grace. Baius, a
Roman Catholic divine, of Louvain, drew a
dodrine from St. Auguftin's writings, which
afcribes all to grace, and leaves nothing to hu-
man
-j- Some of the Scotch reformed clergy in the laft century,
to gain popularity, endeavoured to perfuade their parifliioner*
that they were often engaged in conflids with the devil,
whom they always foiled. Some of them pretended to the
gift of prophecy, and if their random predi6lions were, at any
time, realized, the Ignorant vulgar were firmly perfuaded that,
the fpirit of the prophets was fubje6l to them. — Probably
they thought, that to guefs at future events, and to be
haunted with the devil, were the high road to holy fame.
Lect.VIIL modern history. (435 j
man liberty. This dod:rine was condemned at
Rome, and the difpute it gave rife to, produced
at that time, no material confequence. On the
other hand, Mohna, a Spanifh jefuit, formed a
fyftcm which gave too much to liberty, and
took all from grace. — The Dominicans eagerly
embraced and defended Molina*s dod:rine. —
Volumes upon volumes were written, and many
congregations held at Rome to canvafs thefe
obfcure points. The difputes were long, and
managed with much heat and animofity. The
pope, Paul V. put an end to thofe controver-
fies, which are indeterminable, becaufe they
concern obje(5ls inaccefTible to the human
mind.
The Calvinilts were divided upon the fame
fubje(5l. James Arminius, a Dutch divine, a
man of a mild and charitable turn of mind,
could not digeft the dodrine of reprobation, as
taught by Calvin. He was aware how dan-
gerous it is to reprefent God as a tyrant, who
takes pleafure in the mifery of his creatures.
According to his principles, God is a tender
father, who loves all men, and gives them,
grace fufficient to condudl them to happinefs.
Animated with the love of humanity, Arminius
endeavoured to banifh intolerance from the
church, and inculcated mutual love and for-
bearance. He could not reconcile the idea of
eternal punifhments to that of the divine mercy«
E e a This5
(436) MODERN HISTORY. L^ct. VUL
This fentiment of his was oppofed by many
adverfaries. Gomar, liis principal enemy, pre-
vailed, the dodrines of Arminius were con-
demned, and thofe of Calvin adopted by the
fynod of Dort. This fchifm of the Proteftants
was at that time a matter which concerned only
the church ; but the reader will fee in the
fequel, that it became an affair of the ftate, and
brought the republic of Holland to the very
brink of ruin.
Revolutions in empires. — The period, under
review prefents the reader with great revolu-
tions in Europe. The moft memorable is that
which happened in the Low Countries. The
hiftory of no nation or period can produce a
more furpriling revolution than that, which gave
birth to the republic of Holland. What is it a
love of liberty and induflry cannot do? A
people, weak and poor, fhook off the yoke of
the moft powerful and richeft monarch then in
the world. The principal caufe of this wonder-
ful revolution, was the fuperftitious defpotifm
of Philip II. king of Spain. That prince, who
thirfted for the blood of Heretics, would ex-
ercife the cruelties of the inquifition in Flan-
ders, as in Spain. The reformed dodlrines had '
gained many profelytes in the Low Countries,
and Philip wanted to difplay his gloomy and
fanguinary zeal. Philip, with the approbation
©f pope Paul IV. ereded thirteen new bifliop-
ricks
Lect.VIII. modern history. (437)
ricks in thofe provinces. This eredlion U'as
made with a view to torment the confcience,
dnd increafe the burdens of the people.
Margaret, the natural daughter of Charles V.
and widow of the duke of Parma, was governefs
of the Low Countries, and had gained the love
of all by her mild and equitable adminiftration.
But though in appearance, inverted w^ith the
chief power, the aded only an inferior part,
being obliged to conform herfelf to the advice
of cardinal Granvelle, whom Philip had intrud-
ed with the whole authority. This inhumane
and cruel minifter never diftinguiflied policy
from perfidy, nor zeal from intolerance. He
treated thofe of high rank with contempt,
cramped induftry and commerce by abfurd
cdi(fls, and punifhed the moft trifling faults, as
if they had been the greateft crimes. The
haughty inflexibility of that flranger irritated
the Flemings. They complained, but the court
of Spain, inflead of liftening to their complaints,
fent fevere orders, which incrcafed the evil.
They were ordered to obey the decrees of the
council of Trent, and violence was made ufe
of to put them in execution: this haftened the
revolt.
William of NafTau, prince of Orange, and
count Egmond, two noblemen of illuftrious
birth and merit, put themfelves at the head of
the opprelTed. Granvelle thought to terrify the
E e 3 malecon-
(438) MODERN HISTORY. Legt.VIII,
malecontents, by eflablifhing the inquifition in
the principal cities of Flanders. The barbari-
ties of that tribunal, the new bifhopricks, the
attempts to force the confcience, vexations and
punifhments, provoked the Proteftants to revolt.
Seeing their requefls not complied with, they
endeavoured to do jultice to themfelves In-
Head of pacifying rhe Flemings by mild means,
Philip followed his own inclination, and fent
the duke of Alva into the Low Countries, with
an army. The counts Egmond and Horn, who
would not go with the prince of Orange into
Germany, were foon arrelled. The favage duke
of Alva, filled theprifons, eredled gibbets, fcaf-
folds, and kindled fires, which fpread terror
on all fides. Philip confulted the inquifition of
Spain concerning thefe tranfadtions, and that
tribunal determmed, that all the inhabitants of
the Low Countries, a few excepted, were apof-
tates, heretics, guilty of high treafon, particu-
larly the nobles, who had prefented their re-
quefts, and publifiied complaints againft the
holy inquifition. Upon this fentence, Egmond
and Horn were executed, and their blood ming-
led with that of many other vidtims. Surely
the Proteflants in the Low Countries could not
but be enflamed with hatred againft the Catho-
lic church, and monarchy, which fent the duke
pf Aiva with his bloody tribunal, to commit
fuch cruelties, to opprefs a free people with
unjufl
Lect.VIII. modern history. (439)
unjufl impofitions, and to cover thefe violences
with the cloak of religion. Who could believe
that, during the five years the duke of Alva was
governor of the Low Countries, eighteen thou-
fand perfons were put to death for herefy ?
Yet there is nothing more true : nay, that per-
fccutor made his boaft of it i
Requefens who fucceeded Alva, attempted in
vain to pull down the ftatue of liberty, which
the Flemings had erecfced ; in vain did he offer
to redrefs their grievances, they would put no
confidence in the promifes and clemency of a
perfidious king. Perhaps Requefens, who pof-
fefTed great talents and virtues, might have re-
eftablifhed affairs, but his death haflened the
revolution. Don John of Auflria, the con-
queror of the Turks at Lepanto, was fent with
full power to grant them all, but liberty of con-
fcience. I zvill Jooner loje my crown, faid Philip,
than grant them that. This new governor em-
ployed at firfl: gentle means ; but the enthufiafm
of liberty, and the love of revenge had entirely
pofTeffed the minds of the Dutch. The prince
of Orange took advantage of this difpofition to
form the famous union of Utrecht, and to per-
fect the revolution. He alTembled the ftates
general at the Hague, who declared Philip 11.
fallen from his right and authority, becaufe he
had violated, contrary to his oath, the privileges
of the people. '1 hus the revolt of the ^ts^n.
E e 4 United
(440) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII.
United Provinces was owing to the harlhnefs,
and fuperflition of Granvelle, the fe verity of
Philip, the rigours of the inquifition, and the
cruelties of the duke of Alva. The genius of
William of Orange, the military talents of his
fon Maurice, and the aOiftance given by Eliza-
beth, fixed its fuccefs. In a word, the liberties
of Holland were eflablifhed upon an unfhaken
foundation, by the conftancy, patience, intre-
pidity, and induftry of the firft republicans.
Upon the firft murmur which perfecution,
mifery, and defpair, forced from the Flemings,
they were accufed of infidelity and rebellion.
The moft rigorous orders were ifTued againft
them. According to the inquifition, it was
necefTary to exterminate all who believed that
God is not bread, that God is not wine, and
who could not admit of feven facraments. —
How was it poflible that people fo cruelly tor-
mented for ridiculous and abfurd opinions,
could love fo galling a yoke ? How could they
believe that there was any proper connection be-
tween them and their oppreflbrs ? It is not at all
furprifing that tyrants fhould call thofe rebels
who have the courage to break their chains.
In them, ambition ftifies the voice of nature.
But what furprifcs is, fomctimes to fee a gener-
ous and free nation, approving of the excefTes of
defpotifm, forty that any fliould enjoy liberty but
themfelves, and even lending their afliftance
to
Lect.VIIL modern history. (441)
to forge chains for their fellowmen.f People
fometimes patiently fubmit to the yoke. They
are often deflitute of that courage which en-
ables them to die rather than be flaves. Therc
is a time, when they obey and hate their tyrants.
But when the evil is without remedy, when
ijionfters devour their fubflance, take from them
every portion of liberty, and leave them no-
thing but flavery and chains : then they know
hovi^ to exterminate their opprefTors. It is then
that civil war, which difcovers hidden talents,
and creates unknown refources, breaks out;
then extraordinary men arife, and fhew them-
felves worthy to command their fellow citizens,
Doubtlefs
•j- That the overthrow of defpotifin, and the ere£lion of
a free conftitution, fhould alarm and enrage the defpots of
Europe, hath nothing furprifing in it ; but that a people, who
themfelves are free, fhould condemn the exertions of their
neighbours to better their civil condition, cannot be fo eafily
accounted for. The downfal of abfolute power in France,
fhould, we think, be acceptable to all who enjoy the bleffings
of Britiih liberty. That this is not fo, is evident, from the
reception given to Mr. Burke's Letter on the French Revolu-
tion. Though, in the judgment of difpafiionate men, and of
thofe who are enemies to civil tyranny, that letter is only a
tnalignant and abulive mifreprefentation of men and things*;
yet, from its numerous admirers, we find, that many in Britain,
befides the celebrated declarmer, look upon the emancipation
of the French as a ivicked innovation. Does this proceed
from an ignorance of the rights of mankind, or from a felfifli
wifh, that other nations may not enjoy, to the fame extent/
Englilhracn do, the happinefs of a free conflltution ?
(442) MODERN HISTORY, Lect.VIII.
Doubtlefs this is a terrible remedy- It is a
confufed and bloody sera, in which kingdoms
receive violent concuflions. But it is fome-
times a necefTary remedy, iince without it li-
berty could not be obtained. Then a nation,
forced to recover its imprefcriptible rights by
a rupture of the focial contradt, performs pro-
digies of valou r. Liberty itfelf can do wonders .
Liberty triumphs over nature, makes the barren
rock yield a plentiful harveft, covers the dreary
walle with fmiles, enlightens the humble cot-
tager, and gives him more knowledge and
penetration than the proud flaves of a court.
In vain did the Spaniards employ againft the
Dutch, all the refources of war and art, all the
wonders of patience and intrepidity ; the love
.of liberty was an overmatch for all thefe, and
they furmounted every obflacle. With one hand
they built dykes to flop the fea, which forced
them upon the Spaniards, and with the other
they chafed away the Spaniards, who drove them
towards the fea ; they built fhips, fome of which
they loaded with merchandize, and armed
others ; and difputed with Philip, at the dif-
tance of two thoufand leagues from Europe,
the empire of commerce and the polTefiion of
the Indies.
It is proper to obferve, that the Dutch, with-
out the powerful afllllance fent them from
England, would not, perhaps, have obtained
inde-»
I.ECT.VIII. MODERN HISTORY. (443)
independence. Did Elizabeth, by aflifting the
Dutch, violate the rights of nations? Ought
Ihc to have taken part in that quarrel ? Had
fhe a right to make herfelf a judge of the
wrongs, which Philip might have committed ?
The favourers of defpotifm will, no doubt, con-
demn the queen of England. By the help of
falfe reafoning, they may argue in this manner,
that nations, being free and independent, though
the actions of one may be unlawful, the others
are obliged to fuffer them, when thefe actions do
not hurt their perfedl rights. Upon this prin-
ciple Elizabeth did wrong to aflift the Dutch in
their revolt. Yet if we examine the quefiion in
its true point of view, we will be forced to
grant, that the conducl: of Elizabeth was not
only conformable to found politics, and the
moft facred laws of humanity, but that fhe did
not violate the rights of nations. The authority
of Philip over the Low Countries, was limited
and regulated by fundamental laws. Did not
that prince, by over-leaping the bounds pre-
fcribed to him, govern, from that time, with-
out iiny juft right and title ? Was the Helvetic
nation obliged to obey him ? Should it have
made no refinance to his unjuft and arbitrary
proceedings ? Did not that prince, by viola-
ting all the laws of the conflitution, break the
contradt which bound the Flemings to him?
The Dutch became free by the adl of their fo--
vcfeign.
(444) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL
vereigrij and could view him in no other light
than an ufurper, who would opprefs, and did
opprefs them. What is the eflential defign of
fociety ? Is it not the common happinefs of all ?
Is it not with this view, that each citizen fur-
renders a part of his rights and liberty ? Should
fociety make ufe of its authority to deliver up
itfelf, and all its members, to the difcretion of
a furious tyrant ? no, it ihould not. Nay, far-
ther, if fociety opprefs a part of its members, it
has loll its right by doing fo. Therefore, when
fociety confers authority upon one, it is with
this exprefs or tacit refervation, that the fo-
vereign ihall ufe it for the fafety, and not for
the ruin of his fubjedls. If he governs as a
tyrant, he degrades himfelf, becomes a public
enemy, whom the people may refill:, and from
whom they may withdraw their obedience.
Such were the principles upon which the ftates
general of Holland, declared Philip fallen from
his authority ever them. " Divine and human
" laws," fay they, in that celebrated adl, " fo
"often violated, with regard to us, place us
" again in our natural ftate of liberty, and give
" us a right to chufe a new prince, to govern us
" according to our privileges, liberties, and
" franchifes.'*
The Dutch, by returning to the pofTeflion of
their primitive rights, became an independent
nation, who could contrad alliances with
neighbour-
Lect.VIIL modern history. (44S)
neighbouring Hates. The queen of England
then, by protedting that infant republic, made
ufe of a right inherent in every free nation, or
the fovereign who reprefents it. Defpots, and
thofe whofc intereft it is to favour defpotifm,
"will always cry rebellion, rebellion, when a nation
is unwilling to be crufhed under an iron yoke,
and has the courage to claim their natural rights ;
and they will call that nation perfidious, who,
moved by intereft, or motives of humanity,
aiTifts it to maintain the generous ftruggle. —
But thefe clamours cannot ftifle the voice of
nature, nor ever eiface the principles of natural
liberty; principles engraven in the human
heart ; principles to which even tyrants them-
felves are forced to render homage ; principles
confecrated in the hiftory of Europe, by the
example of the Sv/ifs and Dutch : in a word,
principles, which the example of the North
American ftates renders ftill more fenfible and
evident.
We have perhaps dwelt too long upon the
revolution of the United Provinces ; but re-
volutions which give freedom to nations, arc
the moft interefting part of hiftory. In them
we fee ftaves become freemen ; and by a change
of mafters, liberty eftabliftied upon an immove-
able foundation. Tyrants are enem.ies to the
rights of mankind, they hate revolutions and
rhofe who favour them. But muft fovereigns
be
(446) MODERN HISTORY. LEcf.VIIL
be flattered, even when they treat their fubjecls^
as a defpicable herd, whofe lives and property
are wholly theirs ? Muft we always carefs and
fpeak refpeclfully of a powerful and unjuft man,
who overleaps the barrier of laws, too \yt^k to
reflrain him; or, who finds in the laws them-
lelves, fure and terrible means to violate thofe
rights he fhould defend?
The revolution which happend in Portugal^
a province of Spain, was the effedl of ordinary
caufes. The temerity of Sebaftian, who was
fiain in the plains of Alcacar-Quivir, with many
of the Portuguefe nobility, prepared that event.
The inability of Cardinal Henry, who was in-
capable to repair the misfortunes of the rtate,
and decide the contefts, which the future fuccef-
Hon to the crown, occafioned, haftened the re-
volution; and it was at lafl accompliflied by the
great fuperiority of Philip, and the talents of
the duke of Alva. In vain did the Portuguefe,
who were greatly averfe to the Spanifh yoke, de-
termine in favour of Anthony, and crown him.
Defeated by the duke of Alva in every battle^
they were forced to fubmit to the conqueror.
How could they refift a monarch, who had the
bcft generals and infantry in Europe? The
frontiers of Portugal were in a defencelefs con-
dition. The internal flate of the kingdom was
too much negledled, ever lince the Portuguefe
had fent colonies into diflant countries, and
employed
Lect.VIII. modern history. (447;
employed themfelves in extending their com^
merce. But that revolution made no change-
in the fyftem of Europe, it was fatal only to
the Portuguefe, who felt all the rigours of def-
potifm, under the tyrannical government of the
Sanguinary Philip.
Upon the death of Elizabeth, the crow^ns of
England and Scotland were united in the perfon
of James I. the fon of Mary Stuart. The lovely,
but unfortunate Mary, the daughter of James
V. king of Scotland, was contemporary with
Elizabeth. Rivals in religion and beauty ; Mary
was inferior to Elizabeth in all but the irreiifli-
ble charms of a lovely perfon. Educated in the
court of France, the Scotch queen imbibed a tafte
and manners different from thofe of her own
nation. Upon the death of her firft hufband,
Francis II. ihe returned to Scotland, jufl when
the reformation was introduced into that king-
dom. Young, gay, and fond of pleafure, the
auftere manners of the Scotch reformers were
difagreeable to her. A bigotted Roman Catholic,
Ihe could not be perfuaded to change her own
and the nation's religion.
She was married a fecond time to Henry-
Stuart, Lord Darnley, a man of mean abilities.
The weaknefs and fenfibility of Mary*s heart
were the caufe of her misfortunes. She con-
ceived a diflike to her hufband ; and David Riz-
zio, an Italian mufician, became her favourite.
Rizzio
f448) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIIL
Rizzio was murdered in the queen's prefence,
and her hufband, at whofe inftigation the mur-
der was committed, loft his life foon after; not,
as was thought, without the knowledge and
confent of his wife, as fhe married Bothwell,
his fuppcfed murderer.
The Scotch, offended at Mary's imprudent
condueft, took up arms, and her party being
worfted, fhe was forced to yield the crown to
her fon, and name a regent. She named the
earl of Murray, her natural brother. Convinc-
ed that fhe had done wrong in parting with
the reins of government, Mary endeavoured to
obtain again poflelTion of the crown ; but being
defeated, was obliged to fly into England. The
Scottifh queen met at firft with an honourable re-
ception from her relation, but was told foon af-
ter, that being accufed by the public as thc^
murderer of her huft)and, it was neceflary to
clear herfelf, and if innocent, Elizabeth would
be her protecftrefs. Mary accufed the earl of
Murray, and the earl of Murray accufed Mary.
By whom lord Darnley was murdered, remains
ftill unknown ; for after all that hiftorians have
written to caft light upon it, that tranfadlion
has not been cleared up to the fatisfadion of the
world,
Mary became Elizabeth's prifoner, and con-
tinued fo till fhe loft her head. Several at--
tempts v/ere made to fet her at liberty, but they
were
Iect. VITI. MODERN HISTORY. (449)
were all unfuccefsful, and brought ruin on thofe
who engaged in them. At laft Mary, after
eighteen years imprifonment, was tried, found
guilty of plotting againil Elizabeth, condem-
ned, and had her head fevered from her body,
Feb. 28th, 1587. She met death with pious
eompofure and fortitude, and behaved in the
awful moment as one who w^as not afraid to die.
Mary was forty five years of age at the time of
her death; and yet (as a hiflorian obferves)
when her coiffe fell oft, her hair was difcovered
to be grey, the effetfl of grief and long confine-
merit.* The death of Mary being an unjuft ex-.
ercife of Elizabeth's prerogative, will ever be a
liain in her chara&r.
The Union of the two kingdoms had an influ-
ence upon the fyflem of Europe, and the united
ilrengthof both, made Great Britain a prepon-
derating power. The firft caufe of this revolu-
tion, mufl v/ithout doubt, be attributed to the
right of fucceffion, which nature had given to
James Stuart. However, the condudl of Eliza-
beth helped greatly to bring it about. By con-
fining the queen of Scotland in a long and hard
captivity, flic deprived her of the means of in-
flrudling her fon. It is very probable than
Mary Stuart, had fhe enjoyed liberty, w^ould
have educated him in the principles of her own
tcligion. Had this been the cafe, he would
F f not
* See Rebertfon's hiftory of Mary,
(450) MODERN HISTORY, Lect.VIIL
not have been acceptable to the Englilh, who
were attached to the reformation, and his reli-
gion would have put infurmountable obftacles
between him and the throne. But Elizabeth,
by her great influence in the government of
Scotland, and keeping Mary a prifonerin Eng-
land, made thofe intrufted with the education
of James, infpire him with fentiments conform-
able to the principles of the reformed religion,
and thus paved his way to the crown. The
union of the three kingdoms was an event much
wifhed for by the queen of England. But flie
did not love the fon of Mary Stuart. She not
only would not recognize him for her fuccefTor,
but even refufed to give him afliflance to fup-
prefs a confpiracy formed by fome Catholic
lords, incited by the king of Spain. It appears
that Elizabeth was the foul of the famous plot,
contrived by the earl of Gowry, to feize the
Scottifh king. It was only in her laft moments
that (he named him to fucceed her in the throne
of England.
Hungary, during the courfe of this period,
became a province of Auftria. While the great
Solyman protected that kingdom, the princes
of the houfe of Auflria attempted in vain to
polTefs themfelves of it ; but after his death,
his fucceflbrs, effeminate and debauched prin-
ces, afforded but a feeble protection, and Hun-
gary fell into the hands oi the Auftrians.
Another
Iect.VIIT. modern history. (451)
Another caufe which contributed to deprive the
Hungarians of liberty, was, the too great extend
of their rights and privileges. An excefs pf li-
berty is almoft always fatal to thofe who enjoy
it, becaufe it rarely happens but they abufe it*
This abufe produces difcord and fadlions. An
ambitious and enterprifing neighbour forms a
party, and finiflies with feizing their country,
and reducing them to fervitude.
Defpotifm was the caufe of the troubles
which afflidled Ruflia. Borris fupported his
ufurpation by the perpetration of great crimes.
Having made himfelf odious to the nation, the
Mufcovites fighed for a deliverer. A young
adventurer, a Polander by birth, taking advan-
tage of the general difcontent, alTumed the
name of Demetrius, whom Borris had afTaflina-
ted. With the afliflance of fome Polifh noble-
men, he penetrated into RufTia, and formed a
powerful party, who placed him on the throne.
But fcarcely was his boldnefs crowned with
fuccefs, when allowing himfelf to be blindly
led by the Poland ers, he profcribed the Greek
f eligion, introduced the worfliip of the church
of Rome, aboliflied ancient cuftoms, conferred
upon ftrangers all the employments of the ftate,
and authorized their rapines and violence.; —
Mofcow was filled with robbery and murder.
The Ruflians, enraged at a tyranny more cruel
thanthat from which they had been delivered,.
F f 2 endeavoured
f4?i) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
endeavoured to fliake off fo oppreflive a yoke.
With Zufki, their countryman at their head, they
attacked the ufurper, broke into his palace, and
the falfe Demetrius expired, pierced with many
wounds. Zufki was rewarded with the crown,
but another Demetrius foon appeared upon the
Itage* Supported by Sigifmond, king of Po-
land, he advanced to the capital with a formid-
able army. Zufki implored the afliilance of
Sweden, who zealoufly undertook his defence,
and the narth was difturbed with the quarrel
of an impodor. Defpotifm almoft always pro-
duces bloody revolutions ; becaufe fovereigns,
whafe will is the law, neceffarily turn tyrants^
sind force their fubje(^l:s to have recourfe to vio-
lent means ; and thefe are moftly fatal to a na-
tion, when it cannot improve them to llrength-
en and fecure its liberty. To dethrone one
tyrant and crown another,^ is only to increafc
the public calamities.
The imprudence of Sigifmond deprived him
of Sweden. His fall is an im.portant lelTon to
kings. It fliould teach them that the fceptre
is not fecure in their hands, when they employ
it to tyrannize over the confciences of their
fubjed:s.
The clofe of the lixteenth century prefents us
with important changes in the royal flimilies of
Europe. The Stuarts replaced the family of
Tudor, who had governed England from the
time
Lect. VIIL MODERN HISTORY. (453)
time of Henry VII. The branch of Valois,
feated on the throne of France, from the reign
of Philip VI. that is, during two centuries and
a half, became extind in Henry III. and that
of Bourbon fucceeded in the perfon of Henry
IV. The pofterity of the Jagellons, after
having reigned two hundred years, ended in
Sigifmond II. and fince that time the throne of
Poland has been eled:ive, and filled by different
families. t
Governments, — An abfolute government took
place in all thedominionsof the houfe of Auftria.
The Auftrian princes were endowed with a fpirit
of defpotifm, and caufed it to be felt wherever
they reigned. In Spain, Italy, and the Low
Countries, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, and in
America, all bowed to the fovereign authority.
England became almoft an abfolute monarchy
under the government of Elizabeth. That prin-
cefs was exceedingly jealous of her authority.
The good oeconomy and moderation of her ex-
penditure, was lefs owing to her affedlion for
the people, than to her fear of being in the
power of the Houfe of Commons, by aflving
large fubfidies. The eredlion of the High
Commiflion Court, which fhe invefled with
F f 3 a tyran-
•\ The Poles, fcnfible of the inconveniences of the feudal
fyftem, have emancipated themfelves, are now a free. people,
and will continue fo, if not prevented by their ambitious and
defpotic neighbours.
(454) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VIII.
a tyrannical power ; her fandion given to the
arbitrary decrees of the Star Chamber; the
monopohzing patents granted to her courtiers,
fhew how defpotic (he was. Some Puritan
members of parliament, durfi: complain of thefe
vexations, but it was at the rifk of their life.
She often told the Commons not to meddle with
what did not concern them ; that affairs of
flate and religion were above their comprehen-
lion. She faid, that lince neither her commands,
nor the example of their fellow members could
put a flop to the folly, arrogance, and prefump-
tion of fome of them, ihe would be obliged to
have recourfe to another kind of corredtion.
Who could believe that this language was pa-
tiently received by a majority of the members?
Nay more, it was maintained in parliament,
that the royal authority ought not to be difpu-
ted, nor examined, nor even limited ; that the
fovereigns of England, being abfolute princes,
were a kind of divinity ; that it was in vain to
attempt to bind the queen by laws, or flatutes,
fince ihe, in virtue of her difpenfing power,
might break them whenever flie pleafed. —
Thefe maxims were favourable to defpotifm.
The majority of the Englifli nation had for-
gotten, that the fovereignty refides originally in
the people, and in each individual with regard
to himfelf ; that it is the conveyance and re-
^inipn of all the rights of individuals in the
perfoq
Lect.VIII. modern history. (455)
perfon of the fovereign, which conftitute him
fuch, and really produce the fovereignty. —
Therefore it is by no means true, that a go-
vernment which refides wholly in the hands
of one, has no other foundation than the will
of that one. The eftablifhment of afove-
reign authority is, without doubt, abfolutely
necelTary for the good order, tranquillity and
prefervation of mankind. But to fay, that
God is the immediate fource of the fovereign
power of kings, is a fentiment which has its
foundation only in adulation and flattery. To
aver, that fovereignty depends only on God, and
is independent of all human agreement, is the
way to make princes abfolute. The Puritans
were the only people in England who had a jufl
idea of liberty. They exerted themfelves vigor-
oufly to elecft proper members of parliament,
and in fupport of the rights of mankind, they
did not fear to incur the indignation of Eliza-
beth.— They continued to preferve the precious
fpark of liberty they had kindled, which, ha-
ving increafed in the two following reigns, con-
fumed monarchy, and the church ; from vvhofe
afhes the prefent conftitution arofe, better
adapted to the happinefs of fociety. Elizabeth
annihilated all the rights of the people, relating
to government, except the article of fublidies.
But that able princefs, in enflaving the nation,
made its chains agreeable, iince, with them, ihe
promoted England's glory and happinefs.
F f 4 Every
(456) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII,
Every thing was overturned in France, under
the government of the children of Henry il.
chiefly under the lafl. The whole kingdom
was in the fame fituation, as when the weak
defcendants of Charlemagne divided their im-
menfe dominions, into a multitude of principa-
lities. Authority was no longer fubmitted to,
violence decided all, and bigotry armed citizen
againfl citizen, and neighbour againft neigh-
bour. — ^From this anarchy, Henry IV. extradted
a true monarchy ; perhaps there never was a
more perfed: one, nor a better form of govern-
ment, Henry was abfolute mafler of the
executive part HDf government, and of the power
of doing good to his fubjedts ; this fame king
allembled the nation when laws were to be
made, confulted with them, as with his family,
and decreed nothing but with their confent.
Perhaps, no king ever adled more conformably
to this truth, than Henry did, that the fovereign
power was intrufted with him, only for the
fafety of the ftate, and the happinefs of the
people ; that it was not allowed him to propofc
to himfelf, m the adminiftration of public af-
fairs, his own fatisfaclion and particular advan-
tage; but that the whole of his views and
conduct fnould be directed to promote the
prolperity of the ftate, and render his fubjedls
happy. Impreffed with thefe wife maxims,
and by an invariable adherence to them, Henry
IV.
Lect.viii. modern history. (457)
IV. quickly brought back order and plenty
into his kingdom. Who can flievv fuch a reign
in happier times, and under a better conflituted
government ? A French author has beautifully
defcribed the days of his youth, and the ftate of
France in the reign of Henry. In reading the
defcription, the golden age of the poets appears
to the mindi and indeed, if ever that age exifted
in France, it was when Henry IV. govern-
ed that kingdom. " The idea I have of thofe
" times, ftill affords me the mod agreeable plea-
*f fure," fays the Abbe de Marolles. " I recall
** to mind the beauty of the fields. Methinks
" they were more fertile, then they have been
^* fince ; that the meadows were more verdant,
" and the trees more plentifully loaded with
** fruit. Nothing could be more pleafant than
" the mufic of the feathered fongfters, the low-
*^ ing of the cattle, and the fongs of the fliep-
'' herds. The cattle roamed ^siidy in the paf-
" ture, the hufbmdman fov/ed his fields, and
" reaped his corn, without fear of being de-
" privcd of the fruits of his labour. His coLtage
*^ was neat, he had plenty of food, and flepr
" without fear of bemg difturbed. The fniile
«' of cheerfulnefs appeared in every counte-
<f nance. The ear was entertained with the
" mufic of the bagpipe, fiute, and hautboy.
f^ The rurtic dance continued till evening;
^.* they did not compiam, as at prefent, ot ex-
«* ccfiive
(458) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. VliL
*^ ceflive impoiitions; each willingly paid his
*' tax.** — The happinefs produced by the reign
of Henrv IV. was of Ihort duration; the French
had fcarcely known what it is to be governed
by a prince, who is the father of his people,
when he was airaffmated by a furious fanatic. §
Legiflation, — The legiflation of the ancients
was very fimple ; becaufe each nation always
inhabiting the foil upon which it was civilized,
and all the individuals having one common
origin, were the fame in their opinions and
manners ; and thefe opinions were only the
exprefiion of rules, according to which, each
citizen judged what would be convenient and
proper for him ; becaufe the conftitution was
formed according to the progrefs of civiliza-
tion, and was only a fyilem of opinions ap-
proved pf by the people, for the maintenance
of their liberty and fafety. x\mong them,
laws, manners, opinions, religious belief, the
civil conditution, all tended to the fame end.
—It was not fo with the people of modern
Europe. Each nation v/as compofed of many
different kinds of people. Greeks, Romans,
Jews, Arabians, Barbarians, each differing in
their laws, manners, and cuftoms. The man-
ners, opinions, and culfoms, which, to the Bar-
barians, were in the place of laws, were only a
confuled
J Heniy IV. was afTiifnnated in his coach, in the flrecti of
J'4ris, by one Ravilllac, a Jefuit, 1610.
Lect.VIII. modern history. (459)
confufed aflemblage of unequal and contradic-
tory parts. Of what materials was thejurif-
prudence of the Europeans compofed? Of
capitularies made for another kind of govern-
ment, and other manners ; the cuitoms of dif-
ferent colonies which chance had united ; the
laws given by Juftinian to people as diftant
from them in their opinions, as in the interval
of time which feparated them ; the decifions of
lawyers, and the cuftoms of courts of juflice ;
fome laws, the producflion of ignorance and bar-
barity ; fome regulations, which ambition or
the views of a momentary policy had didlated.
We a(k, how was it polTible, with fuch rude
materials, to have ^ good legiflation ? How-
ever, in the period under review, legillation re-
ceived very great improvement. France had
never experienced a more ftormy, fanatical,
cruel, and corrupted reign, than that of Charles
IX. and yet it was in this reign that, the legif-
lation of that country became more perfect,
than it had formerly been. This w^s the work
of the chancellor De L'Hopital. He made the
voice of reafon and juftice be heard amidfl the
ftorms, which ambition and religious frenzy
had raifed. This great man endeavoured to
reinftate the ma^iftracy in its dignity and power,
by deitroying venality and corruption; to
bring back the clergy to the manners of the
primitive times j to maintain peace between
thg
(460) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. Vlll.
the two parties, exafperated againfl each other,
and in arms ; to caufe the lav/s to reign in the
midll of civil war, and humanity to triumph over
fanaticifm. This man combated the politics
of the court of Rome, the perfidy of Philip II.
the wcaknefTes of Charles IX. the inconftancy
of Catharine de Medicis, the intrigues of car-
dinal Lorrain, the talents and glory of the duke
of Guife, the factious fpirit of the great, and the
avarice of the court. Not being able to eradi-
cate the principle from whefice the evils of the
flate flowed, he endeavoured to weaken and fuf-
pend their progrefs. We may judge of the
corruption of the lixteenth century by the
fhameful abufes, to which L*Hopital was for-
ced to oppofe laws. Ignorance of the true
principles of legiilation muft then have been
very general, lince this great man was obliged
to remedy each diforder by particular laws,
infread of finding in a fyftem of good laws,
jfimple means to flop at once every evil. Thofe
laws of L'Hopital, which laid the paflions or
interefls of powerful men under too much re-
flraint, were foon annihilated ; only a few of
them,which tended to promote the nation's hap-
pinefs, without fenilbly hurting the great, were
allowed to continue unrepealed. This virtu-
ous man received the moft unworthy treatment.
His firmnefs was branded with the name of
dcfpotifn) ; his zeal for juflice was called a
fpirit
Lect.VIII. modern history. (46??
fpirit of revenge ; his courage to defend the
liberties of his fellow citizens, treafon againfl
the fovereign; his tolerant fpirit, irreligion;
his extenfive views, a fondnefs of f) flem ; his
humanity, and love of mankind, a romantic
philofophy. He was baniflied, retired from
the world, and found in literary purfuits,
wherewith to mitigate his grief for the misfor-
tunes of his country. Poetry, the delight
of his youth, and to him a relaxation in the
tumult of public affairs, became the amufe-
ment of his old age. His letters abound with
an elevated and comforting philofophy ; they
breathe a hatred of oppreflion and bigotry, a
love of learning and tranquillity : he conliders
great employments as great duties to be dif-
charged, and fpeaks of his banifhment, as hav-
ing afforded him an opportunity to tafte the
fvveets of private life, lament his king, and weep
for his country. He had lived four years, free
and independent, in this retreat, when the maf-
facre of St. Bartholomew was perpetrated, the
moff horrid crime that ever ftained the annals
of France, or thofe of any other nation. Six
months after that carnage, the wife Hopital
died, lamented by the few virtuous men, who
ffill remained in his country. France produced,
about the fame time, great magiflrates, and
excellent lawyers : fuch were Chriftopher de
Thou, a man of immenfe erudition, and greatly
refpeded
(462) MODERN HISTORY. LEcx.VIIt
refpeded by all parties ; Achilles de Harlay, a
pattern of firmnefs and pundluality in the
difcharge of every duty ; with feveral others,
who greatly improved jurifprudence, and were
an honour to their country. Nor was it in
France alone that legidation flourifhed. Other
nations had alfo learned civilians. Pancirole in
Italy, and Hottman in Germany, removed
much rubbifli and imperfection from the laws
of their refpedlive countries. In England, the
tv/o Bacons, one of whom held the feals of the
kingdom for many years w ith great applaufe,
while the other gave much light and improve-
ment to legiflation.
Commerce, — Commerce changed its centre
near the end of the fixteenth century. The
Portuguefe, by coming under the yoke of Spain,
were deprived of their commercial advantages.
Obliged to take part in Philip's wars, they be-
held the ruin of their colonies. Lifbon and
Seville ceafed to be the chief emporiums of
commerce. The Englilh and Dutch became
pofTefTed of that wealth, which the Spaniards
and Portuguefe allowed to flip from them.— -
Elizabeth, convinced that commerce is the
moft powerful refource of a nation, employed
the whole of her reign to increafe it. She en-
couraged her fubjedts to fail to Greenland in
quell: of whales; to bring furs from Archangel j
ivory from the coaft of Africa; to feek for gold
in
Lect.VIII. modern history. (463:^
in Mexico and Peru. The colony of Virginia
was planted under her aufpices. — Bold naviga-
tors, encouraged by wife laws, laid the founda-
tion of the North American colonies. Drake,
the firft i'nglifhman, who circumnavigated the
world, returned to his native country, loaded
with magnificent fpoils. — Lancafter penetrated
into Brazil, and pillaged the opulent town of
Fernanbuco. — Raleigh, Hawkins, and Norris,
captured many fhips in the South Seas, and got
immenfe riches. Cavendifh, upon his return
to England, entered the Thames in a kind of
triumph ; his foldicrs and failors were drefled
in filk, the fails of his fhips were damafk, and
the toprnaft adorned with a pavilion of cloth of
gold. Elizabeth was the foul of thofe expedi-
tions, which inftruded the Englifli in the art
of failing, and infpired them with that fpirit
of navigation and commerce, which has been
a fource of wealth, and rendered them fo for-
midable to the other nations of Europe.
England, though polfelTed of very few fhips at
the commencement of this princefs's reign,
became, in a fhort time, one of the firfl: mari-
time powers. The opulence which refults from
commerce, gave new life to ail the parts of
government, and London had then citizens,
who, in point of riches, were equal to monarchs.
It was then that Grefham, an Englilh merchant,
lent his fovereign two hundred thoufand pounds,
* built^
(464) MODERN' HISTORY. Lect.YIII^
built, at his own cxpence, the Royal Exchange,
repaired two large churches, rebuilt a part of
the walls of the city, and founded five hofpitals.
The Dutch, who imitated theEngliih, foon be-
came their rivals. Deprived of the liberty of
entering any of the Spanifh ports, their com-
merce in Europe was cramped; thus fituatcd,
they refolved to tranfport the centre of it into
Afia. Then the Dutch Eafl India company
was edablillied, which, compofed at firft of a
few merchants, not very rich, and reflricfled to
employ only a fmall number of (liips, were able,
in a little time, to arm confiderable fleets.
Having added force to induftry, they attacked
the Spaniards and Portuguefe, took from them
almofl all their pofTeffions beyond the Ganges,
and feized upon the commerce of the fpice
iflands. Unremitting toil, great patience, the
moll rigid oeconomy, increafed that fource of
riches, and gave to many individuals the mod
opulent fortunes, which, flowing back into the
public treafury, rendered Holland one of the
firfl powers in the world. At the fight of
commerce, the afiliirs of this republic put on a
new face. The Dutch hired fifty thoufand
men againfl: Philip III. granted fubfidies to
many fovereigns, faw Afiatic kings their tribu-
taries, and forced nature in Europe. They
raifed dykes to confine the ocean ; dug innu-
merable canals ; marihy ground was changed
into
Lect.VIII. modern history. (465)
into fertile fields, villages into large cities, and
cottages into palaces. Commerce produced all
thefe wonders. France was not then a com-
mercial nation. Henry IV. and Sully would
have diredled their views to trade, had their
reign been longer. All that was poflible to be
done, they did. The colony of Canada was
planted, many manufadlures were introduced
into France, and every thing announced the
birth of commerce, when an obfcure wretch
put an end to a life fo very necelTary to the pro-
fperity and happinefs of a great nation.
The Mechanic Arts, — Sciences, — The mecha-
nic arts which had flourifhed in Flanders for
three centuries, and chiefly at Malines, Ghent/
and Antwerp, fled at the fight of the duke of
Alva and the inquifltion, and took refuge in
England, France, and Holland. — Molt of the
fciences received improvement during this pe-
riod ; only medicine continued almoft in the
fame flate. The phyficians of thofe times chofe
rather to adhere to old prefcriptions, than make
any alteration in the pradice of phyfic.
This was not the cafe with the fcience of ma-
thematics ; by the improvements in algebra,
and its application to geometry, mathematical
knowledge fenfibly increafed. Francis Viette,
of Poitou in France, a celebrated mathematician,
carried the dodtrine of analvfis much farther than
it had been before his time ; in folving queftions
Gg in
(466) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
in algebra, he fubflituted the letters of the al-
phabet in the place of arithmetical figures, and
rendered geometry more eafy, expeditious, and
better adapted to complicated calculations.
Two fovereign princes were the patrons of
thofe who fuccefsfully cultivated aftronomy.
William, landgrave of HelTe, not only beflovved
favours upon thofe devoted to this fcience, but
made it his favourite ftudy. He drew up a
catalogue of the fixed ftars, built an obfervatory
at Caflel, and was indefatigable in making ob-
iervations. Juftus Byrgius, the companion of
his labours, improved the aftronomical inftru-
ments then in ufe. Several aftronomers diftin-
guifhed themfelves in this fcience ; but Tycho
Brahe, a Dane, eclipfed them all. Though his
fyftem is not comparable to that of Copernicus j
yet the many phenomena he difcovered, his ob-
fervations upon the moon and comets, claim
our admiration and gratitude. Frederick II.
king of Denmark, was long his friend and pro-
teclor. For him he built the obfervatory of
Uraniburgh. But the liability of human friend-
fhip cannot be depended on. Frederick's af-
fedion changed, and Tycho Brahe went into
Germany, where he found a new proteclor in
the emperor Rodolph ; he too withdrew his
friendfhip, and this man died in exile at Prague.
The telefcope was invented about the beginning
of the feventeenth century, and its invention
was
Lect.VIII. modern history. (467)
was owing to chance. The children of a Dutch
mechanic, v/hilfl at play, happening to place
two fpedlacle glaiTes at the extremities of a tube,
were furprifed to fee objedts approach nearer
and grow bigger. Struck with the phenomenon,
they gave a fhout which brought their father;
he made proper refledlions upon this difcovery,
communicated his ideas to his friends, wlio
aflifl-ed him in making the firfl telefcope.
Maurolinus revived optical knowledge by his
treatife on light and Jhade, Other opticians
improved upon his ideas ; and the celebrated
Anthony de Dominis made a very excellent dif-
covery in this fcience, by his theory of the rain^
hozv. The theory of mechanics, unknown in
Europe for ten centuries, was revived about the
fame time, and the mechanical powers properly
accounted for, and afcertained.
Philofophy, — Times of darknefs are unfavour-
able to true philofophy. When the mind is
under the influence of prejudice, or warped by
any abfurd biafs, (as was the cafe before the re-
formation, and the revival of learning in Eu-
rope) it refufes to hear the voice of reafon. But
in fpite of the efforts of fuperflition, and the
tyrannical excefles of fanaticifm, the progrefs of
philofophy was amazingly rapid. Truth began
to be liftened to by all ranks in fociety. The
chancellor L'Hopital caufed its voice to be
heard inthefandiuary of juilice; fir Philip Sidney
G g 2 brought
(468) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
brought Elizabeth's court to have a tafte for it,
while Peter Ramus, a profeffor at Paris, ftrug-
gling with indefatigable zeal againlt the pre-
judices of his time, endeavoured to introduce
it into the French univeriities. Continually'
expofed to perfecution, for exhorting men to
confult their reafon, and think for themfelves,
he loft his life in the maffacre of St. Bartholo-
mew. Bodin, in his book of a republic y unfolded
the principles of philofophy, and pointed out
the refpedlive rights of fovereigns and fubjeds.
He taught his principles publicly in the univer-
fity of Oxford, but flander did all flie could
to tarnifh his reputation. Montagne, the So-
crates of his age, inveftigated morals in hiseffays.
In them a true pidiure of the human mind is
ingenioufly painted, and man fhewn to be what
he really is. Ignorance and flander calumniated
and perfecuted this fage. Do not thofe who
enlighten and reform men, deferve to be treat-
ed with every mark of refpecfl and gratitude ?
They certainly do ; but their lot in all ages has
been the very reverfe.
Literature, — Hiftory occupies one of the
principal ranks in polite learning. The nations
of Europe had not yet produced any good hif-
torians. — The Englifh admired Camden in his
Dejcription of Britain ^ and his Life of Elizabeth,
The French commended the curious Memoirs
of Mont-Luc, notwithftanding their bad ftyle ;
thofe
Lect.VIIL modern history. (469)
thofe of Br^ntome, fo valuable for their limpli-
city, Sully's Ledcures, which abound with found
politics and great views; the fatire Menippe^
in which the vices and ridiculous follies of the
leaguers are fo ftrongly painted ; the hiftory of
the civil wars in France, by Davila, an Italian;
and that of the immortal Thuanus. In Portu-
gal, Oforius acquired fame as a hidorian, by his
Life of the Great EmmcinueL Hungary produced
Sambuccus, who wrote a better hiftory of his
country, than any before his time. Olaus, a
Swede, difentangled the annals of the ancient
inhabitants of the north. In Italy, Onuphrius
continued the lives of the popes y begun by Pla-
tina; but this hiflorian, being the pontiff's
penfioner, deferves only a fmall degree of credit.
Baronius publifhed his Annals^ and Turcilinus
his Effay on General Hiftory ; but to his eternal
difgrace makes no apology for the maifacrc of
the Proteftants : and (to mention no more)
Pancirole, in his book of things loft and founds
defcribes the inventions of the ancients, which
time had lofl, and the difcoveries of the mo-
derns, unknown to antiquity.
The iludy of the languages is a principal
branch of literature. The Latin tongue was
chiefly fludied in this period. A crowd of
commentators and interpreters appeared. Ca-
faubon, Juftus Liplius, and Jofeph Scaliger
acquired much fame by their laborious re-
G g 3 fearches.
(470) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
fearches, and ufeful difcoverics. Bodley im-
mortalized his name by the valuable library he
left to the univerfity of Oxford. Amyot raifed
his reputation by his tranllation of Plutarch's
Lives ; Muret, by the pure latinity of his ora-
tions ; and Beza, by his great knowledge in the
Greek and Latin languages. Owen, an Englifh-
man, made a colledtion of epigrams ; and George
Buchanan, of Dumbartonfhire, in Scotland,
eclipfcd all the Latin poets of his time. His
Paraphraje upon the PfalmSy his Poem of the
Sphere, his Paftorah a?id Odes, which may vie
with the compofitions of Horace ; his Hiftory
of Scotland, almoft equal to Livy in latinity and
ftyle, have been, and ever Vv'ill be admired by
perfons of true tafte and literature. But he is
reproached with being an unfaithful hiftorian,
and for having torn the charader of Mary
Stuart, when in adveriity, whom he had lavifhly
praifed in the day of her profperity.
The living languages of Europe were not
cultivated with the fame fuccefs. The Englifh
tongue was in a rude (late, nor had any hitherto
attempted to give it that polifh of which it
is fufceptible. — —However, England pofTeffed
two excellent poets ; Spenfer, whofe paflorals
abound with brilliant images, delicate thoughts
and much harmony; and the immortal Shake-
fpear, the poet of nature, and the delight of the
Englifh.
The
Lect^VIII. modern history. (471)
The Frenchlanguage was no better polifhed
than the Engliili. Their profe was only a bar-
barous jargon. They had not yet fucceeded in
poetry ; for though their poets had produced
tragedies y pajhralsy ^nd fongs, yet thefe compofi-
tions were very far from being perfect. Of all
the French verifiers, Ronfard acquired the
greateft reputation by his Jonnets^ odeSy and ec^
logues. They were fung by Mary Stuart, and
Charles IX. and the famous Perron pronounced
his funeral oration. The French called him the
prince of poets. He might be the chief of thofe
then in France ; but in the opinion of com-
petent judges, he is inferior, as a poet, to Shake-
fpear or Spenfer.
Several eminent poets appeared in Spain about
the endof thefixteenth century, and from them
the Spanifli tongue received a high pol ifh. The
different kinds of poetry were cultivated by
Spaniards of genius and learning, and fome of
their compolitions are not unworthy of the
celebrated poets of antiquity.
The Italian language could then boaft of a
poet who left all his contemporaries far behind.
At the name of Taflb, we call to mind his im-
mortal poem of Jerufalemme Uherata,* and his
Amintay a mafterpiece of paftoral poetry, and,
in the opinion of many, more perfedl than his
Jeru/alem, About the fame time, Annibal Caro,
Q g 4 tranflated
* Jerufalem delivered.
(472) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIIL
tranflated Virgil and Lucretius into Italian
verfe. • Several other authors improved the
Italian, by their works in profe and verfe.
Fine Arts. — Italy flill continued to be the
habitation of the fine arts. The celebrated
Palladio built a theatre at Vicenza, which Eu-
rope admired, and adorned that city with the
beauties of archite(fture. — Sculpture Hill flou-
rifhed at Florence ; and Rome was always in
pofTeffion of the mofl eminent painters. — The
Venetian fchool flill fupported its reputation ;
Titian and Tintoret, though advanced in years,
continued to pradlife their art, and teach it.
Many excellent painters were formed by the
leflbns of thefe two great mafters, of whom
Paul Veronefe was the chief. This painter
gave his works fuch a brightnefs and truth of
colouring, as render them truly valuable. The
three Carrachi increafed the reputation of the
Lombard fchool by the wife precepts they gave
concerning painting, and by executing what
they taught. This fchool produced many famous
artifls, of whom there was none more perfedt
than Guido. His paintings difplay a juflnefs
of proportion, an attitude fo agreeable, ideas fo
noble, moving and graceful, as cannot fail to
charm every coimoijjeur in this art.
The Flemifh fchool arofe above mediocrity,
?ind produced fome illuftiious artifls. Land-
scape, hiftorical, and portrait paintir g arrived
Lect. Vlir. MODERN HISTORY. (473)
at great perfedtion in Flanders ; and Elflieimer's
night pieces were much admired. Vaenius Otho
gave a new form to the fchool at Antwerp, and
fecured a lading fame to himfelf, by preparing
the great Rubens.— -The art of engraving was
fuccefsfully cultivated in all thefe fchools; for
improvement in one art, flimulates to that in
another ; each is emulous to excel, and the arts,
by that means, acquire a high degree of per-
fecflion.
England could not boafl of any eminent
artifl ; but France polTefled an excellent fculp-
tor in Germain Pilon, and two fkilful archited:s
in Louis de Foix, who built the tower of Bour-
deaux, and Philibert de Lerme, who adorned
Paris with relugar buildings, embellifhcd Fon-
tainbleau, finilhed the Louvre, and began the
Thuilleries.
The arts, fciences, and Belles LettreSy could
not but thrive in the period under review;
becaufe the moft of the fovereigns of Europe,
not only encouraged and protedicd, but even
cultivated them. Catharine de Medicis infpi-
red her family with a talle for the arts. •
Her Ion loved and cultivated letters. Her
daughter Margaret proteded them. Mary
Stuart, learned in the Greek and Latin tongues,
compofed with equal eafe in profe and verfe,
and was the friend of learning and the arts.
Frederick IL afliiled Tycho Brahe in making
obfervations
(474) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.VIII.
obfervations at Uraniburgh. Sixtus Quintus
and Clement Vlll. thought it their duty to be-
friend and animate all that tends to exalt and
adorn the human mind. The haughty Paul V.
treated Guido with a kind of veneration. Philip
II. forgot his gravity with Moro. The duke of
Parma made himfelf familiar with the Flemifh
artifls. The landgrave of HcfTe cultivated
aftronomy with fuccefs. The emperor Rho-
dolph minded the fciences more than politics.
Henry IV. of France, loved and cherifhed every
branch of human knowledge. Few periods
prefent the reader with fovereigns more con-
fummate in the art of reigning than Philip II.
Elizabeth, Henry IV. and Sixtus Quintus;
or with generals more perfedl in the military
art, than the duke of Alva, the Marquis of St.
Croix, the duke of Parma, Spinola, William
and Maurice of Orange, Conde, Coligni, the
Guifes, the Birons, Eflex, Montjoy, Drake and
Sidney.
LECTURE
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (475)
LECTURE IX.
o
RevolutiojtSy — Governments ^ — Religions y — Navi^
gatioHy — Com'incrce^ — Plnlofopbyy — Sciences, —
Morals, — Literature, -^Fine Arts, — The Con^
clvfion^
/?^z;gto/g;/^.-— T T ISTOR Y prefents the reader
-*- -*- with almof!: nothing but re-
volutions.— Some are quick and deflruclive, and
occalion tb^ mod terrible convulfions in thofe
kingdoms where they happen. Others, though
more flow, and attended with lefs difmal cataf-
trophes, are in their confequences, no lefs fatal
to the happinefs of fociety. — Few periods can
furnifli a greater number, than that of the
feventeenth century.
The Spanifn monarchy, which, in the fixteenth
century, threatened to enflave Europe, was
greatly reduced, ftruck with a mortal langour,
and fcarcely able to defend itfelf from the at-
tacks of its neighbours. Holland was wholly
feparated from this great body. Portugal and
its dependencies, had fliaken off the yoke. Ca-
talonia wanted to be independent. The arms of
France were in the Low Countries, and the mod
of the colonies only w^aited the approach of an
enemy to change their mailer. What were the
caufes
(476) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX,
caufes of fo furprifing and rapid a decline? A
fuperficial inquirer, who attends only to the
event, will find them in the genius and intrigues
of Richelieu : but he who can carry his re-
fearches farther, will find that, this revolution
was the necefTary effedl of the internal faults,
which for a long time undermined the Spanifh
government : he will fee that the depopulation
of the country, the negledl of agriculture, an
ignorance of the arts, diforder in the finances,
and the feverity of the government, necefiarily
produced that mortal langour, which has for
near tw^o centuries affeded Spain, and which
ftill affe6ls her.
The depopulation of Spain, was, in the firfl
place, owing to the continual wars between the
Chriflians and Moors. The partizansofChrif-
tianity and Mahometanifm, fought only to de-
ftroy each other; and Spain, during eight cen-
turies, was nothing but a field of battle. How
great a lofs muft this have been to poflerity !
Scarcely was this caufe at an end, when the
difcovery of America furnifhed another. The
Spaniards, covetous of gold, went in crowds to
thefe new pofTeflions, and the mother country
was deferred. Multiplied emigrations muft
neceflarily diminifh population. One refource
was ftill left to Spain. There were eight hun-
dred thoufand defcendants of the ancient Moors,
who were mofily employed in agriculture. —
Their
Lect.IX. modern history. (477)
Their laws prevented thefe induflrious inhabi-
tants from emigrating to America. They never
were engaged in war, and their religion was fa-
vourable to the propagation of the human fpecies.
Thefe valuable fubjedls could preferve and en-
creafe the population of Spain j but Philip III.
at the beginning of his reign, having driven them
out of his kingdom, by an impolitic and cruel
edicft, lod one eight part of the inhabitants of
Spain. Laftly, the great number of cloiflers,
which a blind piety believed could not be too
numerous, became the lail gulph, in which the
human race was fwallowed up. .
After the expulfion of the Saracens, agricul-
ture was totally negled:ed in Spain. — The Spa-
niards, thinking they could make large fortunes
in America, or the Indies, in a Ihort time, "were
naturally induced to defpife an art, the profits
of which are always flow and confined. They
with joy fliook ofFa tedious and toilfome laboury
and introduced among them a barbarous and
fatal prejudice, which regarding the labours of
the field as contemptible, gave the hufbandman
a diftafte for agriculture, and produced an in-
dolence deflructive to morais,and the profperity
of ftates. The government fhould have given
a check to this prejudice; and, by attaching
honours to the farmer's profefPion, tried to rouze
the vanity of the nation ,• but they allowed it ta
fubfifl, and even encouraged it, by an incrcafe
of cloifters. It might be naturally expecled,
that
f478) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
that the hufbandman, feeing the monks honour-
ed and happy, would not heiitate to exchange
a laborious, obfcure, and cjefpifed life, for one
more eafy and refpeclable.
A love of eafe, and a contempt of agriculture,
produced a diflike to the mechanic arts. The
indolent and haughty Spaniard would have
thought himfelf difhonoured by embracing a
mechanical profeflion. Nay, the fame abfurd
way of thinking induced them to undervalue
fome of the moft amiable arts : however, their
love of pleafure and vanity muft be gratified.
What was the confequence of this ? they were
obliged to have recourfe to ftrangers, who fet
an extravagant price upon their induflry ; the
gold of Spain palFed from them, and the Ame-
rican mines were wrought to enrich theEnglifh,
French, and Dutch.
Gold no longer circulating in Spain, manu-
fa(5lures abandoned, and the lands in an unculti-
vated flate, it was not poiTible but diforder muft
be introduced into the finances. To fupport
fo large a monarchy, required confiderable im-
pofls. But how was it poflible to obtain thefe
from a nation not very numerous and poor?
The confequence was, the marine went to de-
cay; the fortreffes were badly garrifoned, and
the troops ill paid : the Spanifh foldiers ferved
with reludlance, were not obedient to their com-
manders, and eaiily dilbandcd themfelves.
All
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (479)
All thefe caufes naturally weakened the Spa-
nifh monarchy, and rendered it contemptible :
to which, if we add the defpotifm of the kings
of Spain, we will be no longer furprifed that a
revolution took place. When fubjedls are trod-
den under foot by their fovereign, when they
are forced to adore the caprices of his miniflers,
the flate is near its end. When governors are
proud, opprellive, and tyrannical, the people
may fear them for a little while; but from fear
theyeafily pafs to hatred, from hatred to mur-
murs, and from murmurs to revolt. The reader
has already feen, that this was the caufe of the
difmemberment of the United Provinces. The
revolt of Catalonia fprang from the fame fource.
Oiivares ceafed not to multiply taxes, and de-
folated the people by military execution. The
difcontent became general. A company of
peafants coming to Barcelona, met with fome
foldiers at the gates of the city, who had mal-
treated them in the country. At the fight af
thofe fubaltern tyrants, hatred was re-kindled
in the hearts of the countrymen ; they gave way
to their refentment, and falling upon them,
killed fome, and put the reft to flight* Warmed
with this firft fuccefs, and afraid of being
punifhed for what they had done, they entered
the city, invited the citizens to join them,
to expel their common opprefTors. The fire
of fedicion fpread ia an inllant through every
part
(4So) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IXj
part of the town. They march to the governor's
palace, break through the guards, and he,
obliged to feek his fafety in flight, is purfued
to the fea fhore, and pierced with many wounds.
Then the rebels run through the city, malTacrc
all whom they confidered as enemies, and in the
fpace of one day, Barcelona ceafes to be under
the yoke of Philip. The flame fpread rapidly
through the province, it fliook off its allegiance
to the monarch of Spain, and came under the
dominion of Louis. The revolt of the Catalo-
nians, gave birth to a more important revolu-
tion. It was in Portugal chiefly, that the Spa-
nifh minifler exercifed his defpotifm. The
duchefs of Mantua, though vice- queen, enjoyed
only the honours annexed to her place. The
whole authority w^as in the hands of Vafconcel-
los, a fpy employed by Olivares, the minifl:er
of his feverities, the inlidious obferver of the
words and adlions of the great, and the oppref-
for of the people. The Portuguefe abhorred
Vafconcellos, and fighed in fecret for a deli-
verer. JohnofBraganza was high in the public
cfl:eem, and to him were the eyes of all direcfted.
A confpiracy was formed, and in fpite of Vaf-
concellos' fpies, Liibon, in one day, changed
her mafter, at the expence only of the blood of
two wretches. Thus, in the fpace of one year,
John of Fraganza faw himfelf poflHTed, of all
that formerly belonged to his anceflors. The
nobility.
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (48 i )
#
nobility, clergy, monks, citizens, and the reft
of the people, all united to expel their tyrants.
Spain was then convinced how difficult it is to
keep under the yoke, for a length of time, peo-
ple who feel only the iron hand of oppreflion.
The fame caufes of decay ftill fubfifl, though
not, perhaps, in the fame degree. However, it
is to be hoped, that a change for the better will
foon take place. Philofophy has penetrated in-
to that happy climate ; the voice of rcafon and
truth, and the rights, of mankind, begin to be
attended to by the Spaniards. The abolition
of the formidable tribunal of the inquilition,
would be an event of very great importance to
Spain. The encouragement of letters, arts, and
manufactures, commerce and agriculture, would
give vigour to their government, and energy
to the indolent Spaniard.
The younger branch of the houfe of Auftria,
eflabliflied in Germany, feemed to inherit the
pre-eminence of power which the elder had loft.
Soon after the beginning of the feventeenth cen-
tury, it pofTeiTed, for ten years, a fuperiority
which alarmed Europe. During that time the
court of Vienna made all fubmit to her; the in-
terefts of the Chriftian world were fubordinate to
her movements. Ferdinand I L appeared to have
firmly eftabliihed the fuperiority of his houfe.
Turkey no longer difturbed his frontiers; Hun-
gary, which had made vain efforts to recover
t H h her
r f4S2) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
Fier privileges, was more enflaved than ever f
the battle of Prague had ruined the forces of
Bohemia, and that kingdom was neceffitated to
implore the clemency of the conqueror. The
German Catholics cringed tinder their chief.
With refped: to the Proteflants, fome of them
were fugitives, and fomeprofcribed; othersdurd
fcarcely figh in fecret for liberty. Chriftiern
IV. king of Denmark, at the head of the Pro-
teftant league, could make no imprefTion on the
emperor Defeated in every battle by Valilein
or Tilly, Ferdinand was in a fair way to defiroy
the liberties of Germany. But when the fate
of the Proteflants appeared to be defpcrate, all
at once, one man changed the face of affairs in
that part of Europe. Ferdinand, prelfed, van-
quifhed, overwhelmed by the great Gufbavus
Adolphus, (whom he had defpifed) dripped of
his ufurped dominions, attacked in his heredi-
tary eftates, trembling for the fafety of his capi-
tal, experienced a humbling reverfe ofcircumi-
ftances ; his vidories and triumphs were chang-
ed into defeat and difgrace. The court of
Vienna no longer difputed the pre-eminence of
power; fhe ccuid fcarcely pretend to an equa-
lity. Sweden replaced the houfe of Auftria ;
but fhe preferved this fuperiority only during
the life of her hero. When Guftavus fell in the
plains of Lutzen, his country ceafed to be the
arbiter of the fate of Germany, and returned bv
degrees
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (4^3)
degrees into her former obfcurity. So true it
is, that the elevation, or depreifion of a nation,
often depends upon one man. After his death,
France became the ruling power in Europe, a:
title (he had not enjoyed fince Charlemagne.
The revolutions which took place in England
during the feventeenth century, were in part
owing to the mifcondu^t of the houfe of Stuart.
The rights of mankind were not then properly
defined, and James I. who believed that his
power was founded upon a jus divmumy did all
he could to perfuade the parliament to be of
his fentiments. The prerogatives of his houfe
were often in his mouth, but they were not
fupported by his adtions. The Puritans thought
differently from James, and flrenuoufly oppofed
the encroachments of the crown. The reign
of James I. was peaceable, but inglorious.
Governed by favourites, he alienated the affec-
tions of the Englifh, and duped by the courts
of Vienna and Madrid, he loft that influence his
predecelTor had maintained in the affairs of
Europe. Had James poifefTed the abilities of
Elizabeth, the eledlor Palatine, his fon-in-law^
would not have been deprived of his dominions.
England exhibited, for the fpace often years,
a moft bloody and furpriftng fcene. Hiftory
prefents us with inftances of fubjecfls who have
revolted, dethroned, and mafTacred their kings ;
but Charles I. is the only example of a king
Hh 2 tried
(4^4) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
tried according to law, condemned by his fub-
jecfts, and beheaded upon a fcaffold. Nothing
but the boldnefs of Cromwell duril demand in
the name of the army and people, that Charles
fliould be punilhed for all the blood fhed in the
civil wars, and that for the future there fliculd
be another form of government. This propo-
fal was rejected with horror by the parliament.
It ftill had a certain veneration for the perfon
of the king. His rank was inviolable, and
made facred by the laws Cromwell was fully
convinced, that as long as the Houle of Lords
exifted, and the Prefbyterians continued to have
power in the Houfe of commons, it would be
impoflible to accomplifh his deiigns. His ar-
my immediately carried off the king, and con-
ducted him to Windfor. After this expedition,
Cromwell entered London, excluded a hundred
and fifty of the commons from the houfe, and at
length got the fanguinary hill to pafs againft
the unfortunate Charles. The Houfe of Lords
neverthelefs rejedted it with indignation, and
continued inflexible to promifes and threaten-
ings. The independents then declared that the
legiflative power belonged only to the com-
mons, becaufe the fovereign authority refides
originally in the people. From among this
impure, mean, and fanatical fed, a hundred and
fifty commiflioners werechofen, to form a court
of juftice to try Charles. In vain did the cities
and
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (485 )
and counties of England, and three kingdoms
of Europe, fliudder at the ercdlion of this tri-
bunal. The inhabitants of London publicly
exprefled their deteftation of this attennpt; the
Prefbyterian minifters declaimed in their fer-
mons againft the impious adiion ; in vain did
the Scotch make lively proteilations ; the dates
general of Holland remonflrated by their am-
bafladors, that this aiflion would be the fcandal
of the reformation; it was to no purpofe that
the Englifli nobility made a tender of their lives
to redeem the life of their king ; the prince of
Wales, the duke of York, and the prince of
Orange, offeref. to give up their rights to the
crown : all was ineffediual ; neither the queen's
humble entreaties, nor the folicitations of the
French ambalTador, could fave the unfortunate
Charles. The hypocritical and ambitious
Cromwell, appointed one of his judges, encou-
raged his colleagues by his fpeeches, by his
promifes, by his infpirations, by his extafies,
and even by his tears ; while Fairfax kept the
people in awe by force of arms, and Peters, the
greateft fanatic of all the independents, decla-
red from the pulpit, the juftice of the king's
death. Thus the zeal of the Puritans for civil
and religious liberty, and the ambition of fome
individuals, were one of the caufes of the mif-
fortunes of Charles I. However, it cannot be
denied, but that the king's miftaken fentiments,
Hh 3 and
(486) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
and the faults of his adminiftratioh, greatly
contributed to them.
He began his reign with placing a blind
confidence in Buckingham, "who was unworthy
of it: he levied taxes contrary to law: he paid
little regard to the liberties of Englifhmen:
he fhewed too much complaifance to thoft
who were near him : he hated parliaments, and
refufed for a long time to afTemble them : he
was intolerant, and none can, with juftice, ex-
cufe his perfecution of the Prefbyterians, at the
infligation of the bigotted Laud. Such were
the faults of Charles ; and they necefTarily
tended to alienate the hearts of"his fubjecfls. —
A general difcontent fpread through England,
and at that very moment, by bad advice, he em-
broiled himfelf with the Scotch, for fome reli.-
gious ceremonies. He too imprudently laid
down the arms he had fo haughtily taken up
againfl: the revolted Scotch. He fhewed great
weaknefs in chuling for judges between him
and his fubjeds, other fubjedls,' who were no
lefs averfe to his government. His confent to
the death of lord Strafford, hadened his ruin.
This criminal compliance, whilft it increafed
the boldnefs of his enemies, ferved alfo to
alienate the affed:ions of his courtiers. During
the firll years of the long parliament, his con-
duct was only a repetition of faults. When he
had recourfe to arms to reduce his rebellious
fubjedls^
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (4S7)
fubjeds, he was too weak. He indeed difplayed
a heroic courage in war ; but it is impollible to
explain or excufe his blind confidence in traitors,
who deprived him of opportunities of obtain*
ing certain vii5lory ; his throwing himfelf into
the arms of the Scotch, who hated him ; his in-
conceivable credulity with refpecl to Cromwell ;
his efcape to the Ide of Wight, then in his
enemies pofTeffion; and ladly, his ill-timed o^-
flinacy with regard to epifcopacy. His whole
reign v/as made up of weaknciles and faults ; it
was only in his lafl moments that he fhewed
himfelf a hero and a wifeman.
Every perfon of fenfibility mufl be moved
when he reflecl:s upon the cataftrophe of Charles
I. — Tender emotions arife in the mind, when
we behold this monarch before his judges, and
upon the fcaiFold. Conducted by foldiers, who
cruelly infulted him, we fee him appear before
an unjuftand mock tribunal, and firmly fupport
the majefty of his rank in their prefence. He
demands, with a noble pride, where is the
Houfe of Peers fo elfential to the true reprefen-
tation of the nation ? He refufcs to anfwer,
for fear, that by doing fo, he might betray the
conftitution. He deliberately views that group
of wretches, ready to deprive him of life; he
discovers no figns of fear, no marks of refent-
mcnt. On the contrary, with a happy mixture
,of firmnefs and mildnefs, he confents to juflify
H h 4 his
(4S8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
his conducft before a lawful tribunal. Crom-
well's tribunal, unmoved with any thing that
Charles faid, find him guilty of contumacy, and
condemn him to have his head ftruck oiT, as a
traitor, a tyrant, and a murderer. It was during
the three days v/hich intervened between his
fentence to die, and the execution of it, that
Charles fhewed himfelf truly great : his ferene
and compofed demeanour, the wife advice he
gave his children, the charge he laid upon the
prince of Wales not to revenge his death, his
converfation with the bilhop of London, his
exhortations to the people, are traits we cannot
but admire. However, while we lamicnt the
unhappy defliny of Charles Stuart, and agree,
that he was the vidlim of the fury of fanaticifm,
and of the molt confummate hypocrite that ever
exilled, we mufi: acknowledge that his death,
though unjuft, cruel, and illegal, furnifhed an
occafion to unfold one of thofe truths of moft
importance to mankind ; viz. that kings arc
accountable to the people for their condud;
that they ought to refpedc the laws of which
they arc the guardians ; and that when they
violatethe contract which conftitutesfovereigns,
every obligation ceafes on the part of the people,
their perfon is no longer facred, and they enter
into the clafs of citizens, to be fubjed: to the
infpedlion of thofe laws, which they themfelves
jiad violated.
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (489)
In fpeaking of the revolution which brought
Charles I. to the block, it is neccfiary to fay a few
words of Cromwell, by w horn it was conduced.
Though many have extolled his eloquence, he
does not appear from his fpeeches to have been
an orator. They are an aiTemblage of bad rea-,
foning, of fanciful thoughts, pedantic citations,
of low and puerile exprefTions. Notwithftand-
ing thefe faults, he knew how to gain the con-
fidence of the Commons by his harangues. —
And for this reafon ; becaufe moft of the
members were fanatics, and in addrelling them,
he employed the tone of infpiration, and a
myftic jargon which pleafed and won them.
But if Cromwell did not polFefs the qualities
of an orator, we cannot refufe him thofe of a
general. The many battles gained by his
condudt and valour; the rapidity of his con-
quefls; the adlivity difplayed in his marches ;
England, Scotland, Ireland fubdued by him in a
very little time, are fo many proofs of his milita-
ry talents. When we confider him as the head
of a fadiion, we difcover the moft aftonifhing
qualities. We. behold an obfcure individual,
able to make himfelf mafter, for the fpace of
ten years, of all the deliberations of an enlight-
ened parliament ; to become the centre, in which
all parties, divided by intereft and hatred, met ;
to fow difcord between the king and parliament,
^ithout a polTibility of extinguifhing the flame
be
(490) MODERN HISTORY. Leg r. IX.
he had fecretly kindled ; to oblige thofe two
powers, whom he Had rendered irreconcilable,
to take up arms, and acquire as much influence
in the army as he had in the Houfe of Commons j
to make ufe of the parliament to ruin the king>
and fecretly to nourilh a cabal in that afTembly,
that v/ould one day deftroy it ; to direcft all the
movements of that cabal ; at laft to throw off
the mafl<:, and employ the fanguinary indepen-
dents to bring Charles to the fcaffcld ; to
abolifh monarchy, diffipate the Peers, fubjedt
the Commons, fubftituie the fanaticifm of the
independents to liberty, afterwards dcftroy it>
and under a new and fpecious title, to make
himfelf the mbft abfolute monarch that ever
appeared on the throne of England; when thcfe
phenomena are attended to, we muft acknow-
ledge Cromwell to have been the mofb cunning
and flvilful confpirator to be found in the
annals of nations. As a fovereign, hiftory
reprefents him as a defpot, fimple, modeft, and
wife ; re-efuablifhing that order he had deftroy-
cd ; rendering England tranquil and happy ;
preparing for his nation the empire of the feas,
and cauling his alliance to be courted by all the
powers of Europe.
The revolution which raifed Charles IL to
the throne of his anceftors was very acceptable
to the Englifh. The paflions of men had fub-
fided, and they could coolly refled on times
pail*
Lec t. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (49 1 )
pad. The horrors of civil war, and the
anarchy infeparable from it; the abfolute power
exercifed by Cromwell under the title of pro-
tector ; the evils of a military government ;
thefe induced the nation to revert to the ancient
form. The Epifcopalians and Prcfbyterians
joined in the invitation given to Charles to be
king of Britain; but the independents, repub-
licans in principle, were averfe to the reftora-
tion. The commencement of his reis-n was
that of a king who loves his people, and pro-
motes their happinefs ; but an unbounded love
of eafe and pleafure, foon led him aftray. —
Hence the difgrace of lord Clarendon, one of
the ablelt minifters of flate, that ever England
could boaft of, and his becoming a penfioner of
France to fupply his extravagances. The
courtiers imitated the manners of their fove-
reign, licentioufnefs prevailed, and things fac-
red were treated with ridicule and contempt.
■ -Of intolerant principles, and guided by
thofe who were enemies to liberty, he would
have all conform to the worfhip of the church of
England ; and the confcientious refufal of the
dflenters expoled them to fevere treatment. —
The minifters of his defporifm fmed, imprifon-
ed, tortured, and put to death many, merely
becaufe they w^ould think for themfelvcs, and
worfliip God in their own way. — London was
yiiited with two wtvy great calamities a few
years
(492)' MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IX.
years after Charles afcended the throne. A
pedilcnce carried off eighty feven thou fand of
the inhabitants, and a fire dellroyed near two-
thirds of the city. But thofe evils made no
imprefiion on the king ; the intoxication of
pleafure continued ; a French miftrefs, French
manners and gold, bore the fway at court.
James II. of England, and VII. of Scotland,
fucceeded his brother Charles II. — While duke
of York, the Commons had endeavoured to ex-
clude him from the throne upon account of his
religion ; but the bill of exclufion mifcarried
in the Houfe of Lords. It is faid that Charles,
to gratify the wifhes of his brother, and mif-
treffes, died a Roman Catholic, though, during
his reign, he had given evident proofs, that his
principles were neither Catholic nor Protedant,
but altogether libertine. — —James made open
profefTion of the Catholic religion, and to his
faith in the dodrines of Rome, he joined a fpirit
of bigotry and furious zeal. Having formed a
defign of reconciling his fubjecfts to the Catho-
lic church, he began, as foon as he afcended the
throne, to put it in execution. But James
was not equal to the tafk His people had a
very great averlion to Popery, and the tenor of
his conduct was fuch, as to alarm and put them
on their guard. He aded from the very fir 11,
as if he had already gained his end. The pope's
puncio, and jefuit priefts appeared publicly at
court;
Lect, IX. MODERN HISTORY. (493)
court ; he irrprifoned feven bifhops, who would
not acknowledge his difpenfing power ; depri-
ved the city of London and other towns of their
privileges, and overturned the laws with a high
hand. His conduct was fo little marked with
wifdom, that even the Papifts themfelves were
offended at it. The pope, Innocent XL had no
hopes of feeing the Catholic religion eftablifhed
in Britain, by the enterprifes of James, there-
fore would not grant a cardinal's hat to the
jefuit Peters, the king's confelTor. The in-
triguing and ambitious Peters, who wifhed,
above all things, to be Primate of England,
hurried on his mafter to his ruin. The open
attempts of James to overturn the civil and re-
ligious conftitutions, rouzed the nation to take
meafures to prevent them. An aflbciation was
entered into by thofe who wifhed well to their
country, and a deputation fent to invite the
prince of Orange. William accepted the in-
vitation, got every thing ready for his expedi-
tion, landed at Torbay, November 5th, 1688,
and James, abandoned by all, abdicated the
crown, and retired into France.
The revolution was the epocha of liber-
ty to England. The nation, reprefented by its
parliament, obtained the hill of rights for the
people, fixed the boundaries of the prerogatives
of the crown, fo long contcfled; and having,
prefcribed to the prince of Orange, the con-
0 ditions
(494) MODERN HISTOHY. Lect.IX.
ditlons upon which he was to reign, chofe him
for king, in conjundlion with his wife Mary,
daughter of James II. From that time this
prince was known in Europe^ only by the name
of William III. and the deliverer of the Britifh
nation. James II. when duke of York, gave
abundant proofs, in the war with the Dutch, of
his great courage as a feaman, and fkill in na-
val affairs. The royal navy of England was
much improved by his and his brother's exten-
live knowledge in naval architedlure. He
knew the national interefl, and, had he not been
bigotted to his religion, would have made a very
good king. His abfurd and intolerant princi-
ples perfuaded him to ad: diametrically oppofitc
to his own interefl:. Well might the arch-
bifliop of Rheims fay, Inhere is a maUy irho loft
three kingdoms for a mafs,
Turkey prefents the reader wdth fome bloody
revolutions during the courfe of this period. —
We behold Muftapha placed three times on
the throne, and as often forced to exchange it for
a prifon ; Ofman mafTacred by the JanifTaries
"whofe powTr he attempted to diminifh; and
Ibrahim ftrangled by a fentence of the Mufti.
Mahomet IV. was fuccefsful in his wars againft
the Chriflians, by the abilities of his grand
vizier Kuperli. He took Candia from the
Venetians, after a blockade of thirty years, and
laid iiege to ^Vienna, but was forced to raife it,
. by
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (49 d
by John Sobiefki, king of Poland, and prince
Charles of Lorrain. The mifcarriage of this
enterprife, and the great lofs fuflained by the
Turks, were fatal to Mahomet; he was de-
throned, fnut up in prifon, and his brother
Solyman IL chofen in his place. Thefe events
were owing to natural caufes. A defpot can-
not reign but by means of terror ; to imprefs
the minds of men with this terror, he is obliged
to have a numerous and warlike guard con-
tinually around him, to be the fupport of his
power. This guard, knowing that the defpot
is indebted to them for every thing, become
infolent, and upon the leafl: difcontent, deftroy
him whom they were appointed to protecft.
Governments. — The form of government in
Germany was fixed by the treaty of Wefiphalia.
Under the Othoes it was a real monarchy. — •
Under the princes of the houfe of Suabia, the
imperial authority was more curtailed in cer-
tain particulars, and more dependent in many
others. All was confounded under the unfor-
tunate Frederick II. and his children. Their
misfortunes produced a real anarchy. — The
people loil their liberty, and the chief his
power. The emperors of the houfe of AuHria
purfued another line of conduc^t. They knev/
hov/ to bring back order by little and little^
and giv^e vigour to the autliority of the throne.
The power of the head of the empire, in the
hands
(496) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
hands of Charles V. was confiderably increafed,
and that fkilful politician had chalked out a
plan to his fuccelTors which mull have render-
ed them abfolute. Ferdinand I. and his pof-
terity, faithfully foIIo\\ ed that plan, and made
large ftrides towards abfolute power, without
finding any cbilacle; becaufe their mild go-
vernment prevented the Germanic body from
watching their defigns. Defpotifm became at
laft fixed in Germany by the inflexible firmnefs
of Ferdinand II. when the arms of Guftavus,
and the politics of Richelieu, defiroyed, in a
little time, the work of many ages, and pro-
duced that form of government fixed by the
treaty of Weflphalia. Since that time Ger-
many is an alTembly of fovereigns and free
cities, whom comm.on advantage hath united.
The feveral members of the Germanic body
are bound by general laws, and the emperor,
who prefides, is only the executor of the will
of the nation.
Oxcnfliern, the minifler of Sweden, and
D'Avaux, the French plenipotentiary, were the
principal negotiators of that treaty. Deaf to
the folicitations of the emper6r, they confulted
only the interefls of the German flates. Their
condudl was open and free. They employed
none of thofe fubterfuges, none of thofe in-
trigues, none of thofe deceptions, which too
often decorate the name of politics. By this
treaty.
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (497)
treaty, the emperor, always eledlive, has no
right to change the ancient laws, nor make
new ones. This power belongs to the general
diet, as well as that of declaring war, ordering
and fixing the common taxes, and putting un-
der the ban of the empire, or profcribing a
rebellious prince. It w^as decreed, that for the
future each prince, each free city, might, when
they thought proper, make alliances, peace,
and even war, providing that the intereft of
the general afTociation was not hurt by thofe
a6ls of fovereignty. By this treaty the Catholic,
Lutheran, and Calvinift religions were allowed.
Each flate might chufe that which it liked bed.
None but the emperor and the three ecclefiaf-
tical eledors were obliged to conform to the
"worfliip of the church of Rome. The princes
who had been deprived of their dominions
"Were re-eflablifhed, the Palatinate of the Rhine
was given to the fon of Frederick, late king of
Bohemia, and an eighth elecftorate created in
favour of Maximilian of Bavaria. Some
bifhopricks WTre fecularized to content other
Proteflant princes, and to reward the zeal they
had Hiewn for the common caufe. The greateft
part of Alface was ceded to France, and the
Swede had Pomerania, with the duchies of
Bremen and Verdcn. This famous treaty is
ftill the foundation of the Germanic conftitu-
tion, and the bafis of the rights of one part of
Europe.
I i In
(49S) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
In France, the government received, during
the feventeenth century, the form which it had
till the late revolution; that is, the form of an
abfoJute monarchy. The feudal adminiftration
difappeared. The dates general ceafed, and with
them vaniflied the fliadow of liberty, which
thofe affemblies had preferved. Richelieu
humbled the nobility, and deprived them of the
power of tyrannizing over their valTals ; but
at the fame time he took from the people the
liberty to murmur and complain. He made
Louis XIII. an abfolute monarch. — Mazarin,
by adhering to Richelieu's plan, rivetted the
chains of flavery, and enabled Louis XIV. to
reign defpotically. There was no longer a
counterpoife to the power of the crown, and the
fubjedls of that vaft monarchy, were wholly at
the mercy of an arbitrary fovereign. Unfeeling
fouls, who, with competent and independent
fortunes, live at a diftance from court and its
numerous agents, may think this form of go-
vernment the moft proper to obtain and pro-
mote the happinefs of a nation, becaufe the
general tranquillity is the refult; but perfons
of more fenfibility, who ftill preferve fome
energy of charadter, whether they are the vic-
tims of tyranny, or only the witnefles of it, can
fee nothing in fuch a government but flavery,
fhame, the abafement of all the virtues, and
the degradation of the human race. The
tyrant's
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (499)
tyrant's fvvord is continually fufpended over the
head of each fubjedt. It mufl be the wiih of
every friend to the rights of mankind, that the
prefent revolution in France, in favour of li-
berty, may triumph over all oppofition ; that
the attempts of defpots to crufli it, may prove
abortive; that ariftocratical oppofition may
ceafc, the new laws have their proper operation,
and that form of government befl calculated to
promote and fecure the general happincfs, be
fettled upon an immoveable foundation.
In England, all was in confufion about the
mijddle of the feventeenth century. The reader
has feen monarchy fucceeded by a democracy,
and democracy gave place to anarchy. All the
rights of men, and all the parts of a good go-
vernment were overturned, and the phantom of a
republic raifed for a moment from the wreck of
the throne and ilate. But.thefe convulfions,
though terrible, were perhaps neceffary, as
without them, Britons would not have been a
free people ; at leafb, they were the means of
producing one of the beft civil confiitutions
which has yet been feen upon this earth.
Religions — The peace of the church of Rome
continued to be difturbed with vain fpecula-
tions. The popes believed they had ftillcd the
Itorm which the dilputcs concerning predefti-
nation had raifed. This difpute feemed to be
appeafed, when Janfenius, bifhop of Ypres,
1 i 2 revived
(£00) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
revived it, and his talents gave new ftrength to
the dod:rincs of eledlion and reprobation. He
' had fludied the writings of St. AuguiHn with pe-
culiar attention, and thought he had found in
them wherewith to confute the opinions of
Molina. The opponents of Janfenius objected
to his fyflem, becaufe it rcprefents God as a
fevere and rigorous being, whcfe clemency is
confined to a fmall number of elcd:, while his
juftice ftrikes without pity innumerable vic-
tims. They objected, that all the divine pro-
mifeswhichannouncepardon to men, were anni-
hilated by his fyilem ; that he made men, as fo
many miachines, fome of whom were hurried
by their paflions to the commiflion of inevitable
crimes, and to miferies they did not merit ;
whilft others were exalted by grace to forced
virtues, and to a happinefs of which they were
not worthy ; that, were this the cafe, exhorta-
tions to piety and virtue would be to no pur-
pofe. Janfenius acknowledged the truth of
fome of thcfe confequcnces, but, to juftify this
rigorous deftiny of man, he had recourfe to
original fin. It was with much precaution that
Janfenius introduced his fyfliem. He forefaw
that it would occafion a good deal of difturb-
ance. When dying, he fubmitted his tenets to
the fovereign decifion of the popes. The jefuits
condemned his dodrine, loaded it with ana-
themas, and fabricated five propofitions con-
trary
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (501)
trary to it ; this, they flattered themfelves, would
deftroy the fyftem of Janfenius. The Janfenifls
were upon their guard, and would not diredly
contradid: this condemnation : they only faid,
that the jefuits combated an imaginary beings
that they had miftaken Janfenius, and therefore
imputed errors to him, which were not to be
found in his fyflem. Whatever the true caufe
of this quarrel might be, it had afterwards ter-
rible confequences in France. Thofe, who in
England are called Methodiftsy feem to be, fome
of them Janfenifls, and fome of them the dii'-
ciples of Molina.
In the midft of that fpiritual anarchy which
prevailed in England in the period under review,
a croud of religious fedls fprang up, with the
principles and conduct of which the intelligent
reader cannot be unacquainted. Ornitting an
account of them in the detail, we fliall only
mention that of the ^lakers, wHch, from much
fanaticifm, the charai^erifti^ of its firil: appear-
ance, became eminent ^or the moft auftere
virtues. /
George Fox, a^' Englifh mechanic, believed
that Chriilia^'^y was disfigured in the tenets
and condu^'c of every religious fed. He thought,
he dif^overed in them all, avarice and pride
dicf^ating imaginary principles to their credulity.
The law of nature appeared to him to be grofly
violated by their opinions and condud. The
I i 3 pidlure
(502) MODERN HISTORY, Lect. IX.
pidlure of fociety ftruck him with horror. It
was with much indignation he faw a few men
in pofTeflion of all; wealthy without labour,
proud of their rank and riches, infolent and
tyrannical in the exercife of power, while the
multitude were opprelTed with toil and poverty,
cxpofed to reproach, trodden under foot by
thofe tyrants, and at the fame time, flattering
them with extravagant and unjuft titles. Hence
he concluded, that vanity and impoflure reign
upon the earth ; that here below there is nothing
to be feen, but difputes, quarrels, lawfuits, per-
fidies, murders, and wars, in which thoufands
of men deliberately butcher one another. As
Fox was born with a feeling heart, and a warm
imagination, thefe numerous evils put his fen-
libility in motion, and impelled him to feek for
means to diminifh them. His brain was heated
by degrees, and it was not long till he was fully
perfuaded that heaven had fent him to reftore
Chriftianity to its primitive purity, and revive
the rights of nature. It was from the gofpel
that he drew his fyllem. He would eftabliih a
perfed equality among the ^uthful, and would
not have any minifters of relig*i^n, properly fo
called, becaufe, faid he, they arrogj^te a crimi-
nal fuperiority over the confciences of men.
Too peaceable to endeavour to overturu by
force, the forms of government eftablilhed in
the world I he only taught and enjoined his
followers
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (503 )
followers to lliun human dignities with the fame
care the ambitious ufe in fearch of them.-^
He was greatly offended with thofe vain titles
mortals are fo fond of, as thinking that by them
their exiftence is exalted ; with the general cuf-
tom of fpeaking to one perfon, as if we were
fpeaking to many ; with the pride of clothes,
and the pomp of drefs : hence his averfion to
lace, embroidery and buttons, which he thought
were of no ufe. He forbade his difciples all
kinds of oaths, and chiefly not to engage in war;
he enjoined them the pracflice of a boundlefs
charity, from a convidion, that this would de-
ftroy the forrowful difparity to be found in the
fortunes of men. With regard to external
worfhip, George Fox would have only a fmall
number of the faithful affemble together on
certain days, that one of them fhould read a
portion of the gofpel with an audible voice,
and that being done, the whole alTembly fliould
meditate in profound filence; or, that one
Ihould (land up and deliver a religious fpcech,
if moved thereto by an internal impulfe. Fox,
by giving himfelf up to enthufiaflic r<iveries,
came to believe that he was endowed with a
prophetical fpirit, and that an agiication in the
body, or a holy trembling, is a lign of infpira-
tion. His difciples adopted this pious folly, of
which the fpeakers among this fedl are not yet
diveiled. The profound attention of the Qua-
I i ^ kers
(504) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
kers in their alTemblies warms the brain. Then
they experience an emotiun natural to the fenfes,
when in deep meditation, the mind contem-
plates one objed: for a length of time. Fana-
ticifm flill increafes this fhaking of the fibres,
hence refults that agitation in the body, which
gave to this fe6tthenameof.^«^^^rjor Tremblers,
Fox made many profelytes in the country. His
fed: emerged from obfcurity, and foon got ad-
mittance into cities. Cromwell perfecuted it,
becaufe he was fond of war, and dreaded virtue.
Eut the Quakers were immoveable -, exile, im-
prifonment, torture, did but increafe their num-
ber. Under the reign of Charles II. William
Pcnn, the fon of a celebrated admiral, publicly
embraced Quakerifm, and gave it the influence
of his rank and riches. This fecond founder of
the fed obtained for his alTociates a fettlement in
North America, named after him Penn/yhania.
The difputes about religion, in the feven-
teenth century, produced civil wars in France,
Genriany, Holland, and England : but in the
two fiiO:, religion was only a pretext, politics
played th^ principal part. Though Richelieu
attacked th^, Proteftants of Rochelle, he gave
the moft vigorous fupport to the Proteilants in
Germany. Guftiivus was the defender of the
reformed ; but his moft powerful and certain
allies were the French, and they were Catholics.
The religious civil war which difturbed Hol-
land,
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (505)
land, was only tranfitory. It was kindled by
fanaticifm, and afterwards continued by am-
bition. In England, fanaticifm was the caufe
of that barbarous war which lalled ten years,
which fct on fire three kingdoms from one end
to the other, and ended in the mofl: bloody and
unjuft tragedy ever ad:ed in Europe. The many
evils produced by fuperftition, have, no doubt,
opened the eyes of nations : but they fhould flill
be upon their guard, Fanaticifm is not yet whol-
ly banifned from the earth, and ambition ftill
lefs. The late infurredlion in London is a proof^
that it is not impoilible to ftir up the people with
the cry. Religion is in danger, f Who knows what
the confequences of that tumult might have
been, if inftead of a lord George Gordon, it had
had another Cromwell at its head.
Navigation and Commerce. — The Englifh ma-
rine, which had flourifhed fo much under
Elizabeth, did not decay under James I. There
was an increafe in the number of fliips of war,
and for commerce. Artifts were encouraged
by this prince, and naval architedture carried
to perfection. Virginia was peopled, and New
England became the rival of that infant colony.
The Bermudas, which were inhabited for the
lirft
f This obfervatlon is corroborated by the recent tumults
at Birmingham, when the cry, Great is Diana of the Ephefians^
excited the mob to burn the houfes of inoffcnfive citizens,
deftroy their meeting houfes, and offer violence to their per-
fons.
(5o6J MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
firft time, was a ufeful emporium for fhips
failing from the one hemifphere to the other. —
Navigation, under Charles I. became ftill more
flourifhing. The diftant colonies were more
numerous. The Engliih began to m.ake voyages
to Greenland, and to know the importance of
the whale fifhery. It was under the aufpices
of Charles I. that the united company of mer-
chants, trading to the Eaft Indies, was properly
eflablilhed, and the ifland of Bombay became
then a rich compting-houfe to the Engliih.
The Prefbyterians, prefecuted by this prince,
took refuge in the new world ; and it is to thofe
emigrations that Boflon is indebted for its
grandeur. The Epifcopalians and Catholics,
perfecuted in their turn by the Prefbyterians,
when the power was in their hands, fought alfo
an afylum in America, and by them Maryland
"was planted. In the general overturn of the
conftitution, many gentlemen were deprived of
their eftates. Thus fituated, they applied them-
feves to trade, and found in it the wealth they
had lofl. Their example extinguiihed a pre-
judice which had hitherto exifted, namely, that
commerce degrades a nation. Thus the moft
bloody cataflrophes were, to the Englifh, fo
many fources of profperity. The marine of
England, under Cromwell, \vas formidable to
all the maritime powers of Europe; none durfl
i;ifult the Engliih flag with impunity. Trade
alfo
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (507)
alfo increafed under Charles IL and die fleets of
JEngland were a match for rhofe of Holland.
It was in Holland chieMy that na\ igation and
commerce flourifhed during this period. The
Dutch failed every where; to the coaft of Africa,
where they feized upon the ivory, gold, and ne-
groe trade, after having driven the Portuguefc
from a part of Guinea ; to the Cape of Good
Plope, where they made a fettlement, and fail-
ing from thence, they feized upon the idand of
Maurice, conquered Ceylon, drove the Englifh
from Amboyna, ufurped the greatefl part of
the ifland of Java, made its kings tributaries,
built Batavia, and became poiTeffcd of the com-
merce and fpices of the Indies. They afterwards
difcovered Terra Aujlralis and New Holland,
and then failed towards the north, in quell of
the furs of Yefo, In Japan, they had the art
to procure for themfelves an exemption from
a rigorous law, which prohibited European
nations to trade in that empire, and by tramp-
ling upon the crofs, fecured to themfelves an
exclulive privilege of purchafing China ware,
lilks, diamonds, and gold from the Japanefe.
They were no lefs fortunate in the weilern feas.
They divided the profits of the Greenland
whale fifhery, and got into their hands almoft
the whole of the herring fifliery on the coafts of
Europe. In north America, they feized upon
New York 5 in South America, they ravaged
Brazilj
(5oS) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
Brazil, and pillaged St. Salvador. The com-
merce of Copenhagen, Antwerp, Hamburgh,
and of the other Hanfeatic towns, was turned
into their channel, and Amfterdam became the
mofl celebrated city in the w orld. They tri-
umphed at fea ; and their Van Tromp and De
Ruyter carried a befom at the topmaft head, to
fhew their fuperiority.
In France, the tafte for navigation and com-
merce, which Henry IV. and Sully had given
birth to, was loft under the regency of Mary dc
Medicis. The city Rochelle alone, had a marine
fuperior to that of the reft of the kingdom.
Louis XIII. was obliged to hire Dutch men of
war to fight them. Richelieu did not pay that
attention to the French marine and commerce
which thofe two departments required. This
was not owing to his ignorance of their impor-
tance, but to his projecfts againft the houfe of
Auftria, which prevented him from attending to
them. Yet, it was during his miniftry, that the
French made the acquifition of Martinico, and
Guadalupe. Colbert, the minifter of Louis XIV.
directed his views to the improvement of com-
merce and the marine ; but his death, and the
wars in which Louis was moftly engaged, pre-
vented his fyftems from producing their proper
cfFedt. Trade and manufactures flourifti beft in
free ftates, as in England and Holland. France
■was an abfolute monarchy, therefore the com-
merce
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (509)
merce of that country could not thrive, becaufc
it did not breathe a free air : befides, the into-
lerant fpirit of Louis XIV. greatly injured the
trade and manufad:ures of his kingdom. The
repeal of the edid of Nantz, which banifhed
thoufands of Proteftants from France, did at the
fame time banifh thofe arts which were ufeful
and profitable to the nation,
Philofophy. — Three fublime, fuperior, and cre-
ative geniulTes, pafTionately in love with truth,
and of fufficicnt courage to (hew her to men, at
laft overturned the altars of falfe fcience, of
which Ariftotle was faid to be the author, and
gave birth to true philofophy. England,
France, and Italy, each of thofe countries fur-
nifhed one of thofe great men, to whom the
world is fo much indebted.
Francis Bacon, the fon of an illuftrious chan-
cellor of England, after having been, for a long
time, the oracle of the privy council, and of the
national parliament ; after having by his pene-
tration unravelled the labyrinth of laws, and
charmed his country with his eloquence,- after
having been advanced under James I. to his
father's dignity ,- was accufed of the fhameful
crime of felling jufiice, difgraced by a fentence
which difhonoured him, and condemned to pay
a fine that ruined him. This digrace gave him
a diftafle to the employments, riches and ho-
nours of this life, and he fought for confolation
in
(510) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IX.
in letters and philofophy. It was in this foli-
tude, that fearching into the antiquities of his
country, he found out the origin of her laws,
wrote a hiftory of one of her monarchs, unfold-
ed the charadler of the paflions in a moral elTay,
and laid down the wifefl: political principles..
But it is chiefly in his work, entitled Origo
Scientiarim, that he hath (hewn himfelf a philo-
fophcr. It is there we find an admirable pic-
ture of human knowledge, relative to the three
faculties of the foul, memory, imagination, and
reafon. From thefc three fources he deduces
all the fciences and arts. In that aftonifhing
work, we fee him, marking without confufion,
the differences of thofe fciences and arts which
are diflincl: from each other, and laying hold of
the connedlions of thofe which are united, dif-
covering the truths to be found in each of the
fciences, the errors which had crept into them,
and what we ought to attend to in fearch of
them ; planning the machines, the inftruments,
and every thing neceffary to enable us to unveil
thofe truths, which fhew themfelves but darkly,
and to the knowledge of which we can arrive
only by experiment. In a word, every perfon
of letters knows, how greatly endebted the
fciences are to the famous Bacon, and chiefly,
how enlarged his views were, with regard to
experimental philofophy. It was he who point-
ed out all the routes, which conduded to greater
difcovcries;
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. f^ii}
difcoveries ; it was he who obfcurely foretold
.nature's grand fee ret, the law of gravitation ^ un-
folded afterwards by the immortal Newton.
The method pointed out by him, leaving no-
thing to the illufions of imagination, enabled
men of genius to make rapid progrefs in natu-
ral philofophy, becaufe they advanced towards
truth by the thread of experiment, the alone
ejuide that can conduct: us to her.
In France, Defcartes had the glory of forcing
the phantom of philofophy to vanifh, which the
fchools had adored for many ages. The philo-
fophers of his day pretended to explain nature,
by the aid of certain occult qualities ; but their
explanation could not fatisfy his enlarged, pene>
trating, and enterprifmg mind. By intenfc
thinking, he foon difcovered, that the philofo-
phy of his age, was nothing but a bundle of
errors : that all the knowledo;e he had till then
acquired was only a falfe light to mifguide him ;
that an exceflive veneration for received opinions
had retarded the progrefs of truth. He was
convinced that hy blindly adopting another's
opinions, we run the rifk of being the continual
fport of illuiions, and the votary of falfehood.
Having laid down this as a firft principle, he
determined to call in queflion all the ideas he
had received from the moment of his birth, and
to bring them under a very fevere examination.
He then eftabliflicd this leading principle, that
we
(512) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
we are to believe nothing as true, but that which
is evident; that is, we ought to fufpend our
alTent to a propolition, till it is proved to be
true. It is this philofophical doubt, which
effecfled a revolution in the human mind. Wc
fhall not follow Defcartes through the whole of
his philofophical route. A detail of his opera-
tions and errors is foreign to a work of this
kind. We fhall only obferve, that every foul
became imprefTed with the boldnefs of Defcar-
tes; that occult qualities were profciibed, and
replaced by the noble temerity of being willing
togiveareafon for every thing; that his brilliant
chimeras were not dangerous, becaufe he him-
felf furnifhed arguments to confute them; for
we are taught by him, not to rell: our belief up-
on another's word, to defpife authorities, and
give our alTent only to reafon and evidence.
In Italy, Galileo did not, like Defcartes, give
himfelf up to fublime conjedlures, and brilliant
hypothefes, he did not content himfelf, like
Bacon, to point out the route the philofopher
fhould purfue. He himfelf fet the example.
He went from one obfervation to another, con-
tinually multiplied experiments, reafoned only
from them, and fought out all the fecrets of
nature. He alfo made the mod folid difcove-
ries, and created (if the exprefiion is proper)
experimental philofophy.
But
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (513)
But Sir Ifaac Newton was the firil who difco-
vered, and demonflrated the great law of nature^
by which the feveral parts of matter tend to a
centre, and all the heavenly bodies are kept in
their courfes. The nature, properties, and ef-
feds of light w^ere not rightly known before his
time, thefe are fully defcribed and accounted
for in his Optics, His natural philofophy is
altogether true, and fuch as the world was not
acquainted with before; and his mathematical
principles, founded upon tTie calculation of in-
finites, are, perhaps, the higheft effort of geo-
metry. But very probably, England could not
have boafted of a Newton, had not a Bacon, a
Defcartes, a Galileo, and a Mercator gone be-i
fore him. The difcoveries of this wonderful
(I had almoft faid infpired) man, enlightened
and animated many great geometricians and
natural philofophers, who, adopting his princi-
ples, and working upon his plan, carried the
knowledge of nature to great perfedion ; of
thefe, the miofl eminent were Bradley and HaU
ley; the lafl of whom undertook a voyage, with
a view to mark and afcertain the variations of
the magnetic needle in all parts of our globe.
But two of thefe fages did not receive the re-
ward their ufeful labours and excellent difco-
veries defcrved. Indead of receiving homage,
honours, ftatues, and a pecuniary reward, they
were a mark to perfecution, to hatred^ to envy,
X Kk to
(5 14) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
to the fhafts of calumny. Defcartes had very
near fallen a facrifice in Holland to the hatred
and calumnies of Voetius, a famous Proteftant
divine, and minifler of Utrecht. In his own
country, he was almoft unknown, regarded with
indifference by fome, attacked and oppofed by
others, taken notice of by a few great men as a
vain fpedtacle of curiolity, not known or ca-
lumniated at court. — He was defpifed by his
own family: his brother always fpokeofhim
with difdain, faying, that being born a gentle-
man, he had diihonoured himfelf by turning
philofopher ; and he put in the number of un-^
fortunate days, that on which Defcartes was
born, who had brought difgrace Upon his fami-
ly by fuch a trade. But if Defcartes was defpi-
fed in France, and perfecuted in Holland, he, at
leafl, could reckon among his admirers and dif-
ciples, the two moft celebrated princeiFes of his
time, Elizabeth, the princefs Palatine, and
Chriflina, queen of Sweden.
Galileo experienced ftill greater misfortunes-
He was obliged to deUft from being a teacher
of mathematics, becaufe he made experiments
which deftroyed old errors. When he was be-
come more famous by his great difcoveries in
aftronomy, the inquiiition took up arms againft
him. He w^as confined in a dungeon, and
loaded wdth irons; and he refcued himfelf
from being burnt as a heretic, only by dif-
avowing
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. f 5 1 j }
avowing the truths he had difcovered. This
necefTary and forced recantation did no^ alto-
gether deliver him fronri the tyranny of the
inquifition. He was fhut up in a ciiy, by vvay
of perpetual imprifonment, where he was con-
tinually furrounded with informers. Such has
always been, and ever will be the d.fliny of
thofe, w^ho rife above the ignorance of the age
they live in. The cup of Socrates, the chains
of Anaxagoras, the flight and poifoning of
Ariilotle, the misfortunes of Hcraclitus, the
enraged calumnies againft Gerbert, the plian-
tive groans of Roger Bacon, the ftorm raifed
againft: Peter Ramus, and the poignards which
alTaflinated him, are fo many monuments pre-
ferved in hift:ory, to prove, that the laft: of
crimes a prejudiced world forgives, is that of
announcing new truths. In an enlightened
age, it might be thought, that men of genius
would be lefs expofed to perfecution ;• but ex-
perience proves the contrary, the fame fatality
always attends them. If men of celebrated
talents and virtues, fpeak and write out of the
common way, they are fure to be calumniated
and perfecuted by the ignorant, bigotted, and
illiberal ; and thefe are the moft numerous^
and, perhaps, the moft: powerful part of fo-
eiety.
Sciences, — The fciences, enlightened by the
flambeau of philofophy, took a fublime and ra-
Kk 2 pid
f5i6) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
pid flight. Mathematics had been fuccefsfully
cultivated and improved in the fixtecnth cen-
tury; but the invention of logarithms, by-
Napier of Merchiflon, the geometry of imagi-
nary indivifiblcs by Cavalieri, the arithrnetical
machine of Pafcal, the properties of the Cycloid
explained by Roberval, the theory of tangents
given by Fermat, that of equations by Ariot,
the application of the algebraical analyfis, per-
fedied by Defcartes, and his excellent theory of
curves, gave to mathematics a degree of per-
fedion, they had not hitherto attained.
Aflronomy wajs enriched in the feventeenth
century, with many fine difcoveries. — It was
Galileo, who, with the airiflance of the telef-
cope, which he had much improved, placed the
fyftcm of Copernicus upon a folid foundation,
and demonflrated the truth of it by a feries of
obfervations ; it was he, who, direding the
telefcope towards the heavenly bodies, difco-
vered the fatellites of Jupiter, faw, in the milky-
way, an aggregate of ftars, which had not been
d i fling ui (lied before ; difcovered, and even
meafured, the mountains in the moon, guelTed
that in her are lakes and forefts, obferved me-
teors there like thofe we fee in our hemifphere,
and concluded, that die is a body of the fame
nature and figure as our earth. This great
man loft his fight, but his zeal did not in the
lead abate. One of his difciples took up his
labours.
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (^17)
labours, profccuted them for ten ycvirs, and
communicated to him the refult. — ^Galileo
caufed to be inferted in his memoirs, the re-
flexions, with which, the communicated obfer-
vations of his difciple infpired him. In Ger-
many, the great Kepler, iludied the route of
the planets, fixed the form of their orbits,
affigncd the laws of their revolutions, divined
the rotation of the fun upon his axis, gueiied at
his atlllon upon the planets, and that of the
planets upon him, and faw in part the influence
which this luminary has upon the flowing of
the fea. At the fame time Kircher, perceived
the fpots upon the fun's difk, and Sheiner fixed
the time of his revolution around himfelf. —
Alphonfo Borrelli, Peter GalTendi, Chriftopher
Huygens, Caflini, and feveral other eminent
men, made ufeful difcoveries and improvements
in mathematics and aftronomy, in the century
under reviews
Galileo was alfo the reflorer of mechanics:
he himfelf invented machines to demonflratc
the laws of the acceleration of heavy bodies :
he determined the curves which Bombs de~
fcribe, and fixed the movement of pendulums.
Caftelli, his difciple, unfolded a foiid doctrine
concerning the movement of running water.
Torricelli ac(|uired immortal fame by his cele-
br. ed experiment of a tube plunged into a vef-
■^J '-d. with quickfilver; an experiment
Kk 3 which
(Si8) MODERN HISTORY. Lect.IX,
which enabled him to arcertain the weight of
the air, and gave birth to the barometer.-
The air-pump, invented by Otto Guerick, a
German, facilitated pneumatical experiments.
Optics were much improved by Kepler, who
found out the ufe of the retina, dcmonftrated
the exiflence of thofe images painted on the
lower part of the eye, and in what manner they
are painted; explained the laws of re fraction,
and by this affigned the caufes of clear or confu-
fed vifion ; and contrived telefcopes much
more perfc6l than thofe of Galileo.- At lafl
the immortal Newton arofe, inveftigated the
fcience of optics, and by his difcoveries, and
manner of treating it^ brought it to its prefent
perfedion.
Two fundamental medical truths were difco-
"vered in the feventeenth century, namely, the
circulation of the bipod, and infenlible or im-
perceptible tranfpiration. The firfl of thofe
truths was revived by Hervey, who had the cou-
rage to defpife the cries and reproaches of ig-
norance and envy. His doctrine is true, and
all phyficians have embraced it. The fecond
was taught by Sancflorius, who had the patience
to prove it by experiments made upon him-
felf. Anatomy was alfo fuccefsfully cultivated,
and lent its aid to promote improvements in
furgery.
Morals^
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (519)
Morals, — Morals had been hitherto nothing
but an impenetrable chaos. Some fages under-
took to remove the obfcurity under which they
lay hid. Hobbes laid down a wrong principle.
It is not true in fadl, that ajiale of nature is a
Jiate ofzvar. However, among his many er-
rors, we difcover fome great truths. Harring-
ton in his OceanUy has traced the plan of a per-
iod: republic, like that of Plato. The misfor-
tunes and tragical end of Charles I. gave rife
to one of the moft important queflions with
regard to the rights of a king and thofe of the
people. It was afked, have the people a right,
in a lawful afTembly, to judge, depofe, and even
condemn their monarchs? Saumaife under-
took the caufe of kings, and defended it with
very pitiful arguments. The famous Milton,
w^ho took the part of the people, left the quef-
tion in the fame obfcurity. Grotius was the
writer, who illuminated the queftion, in whom
does the public right refide? chiefly in his fa-
mous treatife de jure belli et pads ;* and Puf-
fendorf in his book de officio hominis et civis. f
Locke has alfo difculTed the fame queftion;
but the full inveftigation of the rights of man,
what thefe rights are, and in whom they refide,
was referved for the writers of the prefent cen-
tury. Before Locke, the w^orld had but a con-
K k 4 fufed
* Of the right of peace and war. \ Of the duty of a
man and a citizen.
(520) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
fufed knowledge of the ideas and operations of
the human mind. This enlightened man re-
moved the rubbifli ot the fchools, and in his
efTay concerning human tinderjlandingy has de-
fcribed the faculties, powers, perceptions, and
operations of the mind, in a way perfedly con-
formable to the nature and lituation of man. —
This treatife abounds with truths, clearly ex-
plained and fully proved ; with truths, without
the knowledge of which, man mufl Hill have
been ignorant of himfelf.
Hijlory. -The antiquities of eccleliaftical
hiflory were learnedly and critically fearched
into by Morin, Sirmon, Bochart, and Dupin. —
Civil hiftory was difentangled by VofTius, Mar-
fham, Heinlius, and Meurlius ; Selden read the
Grecian calendar upon the marbles of Paros,
v/hich x^rundel brought to Oxford. Chrpno-
logy was inveftigated by the jefuit Petau and
archbifhop Ufher. Mariana Vv rote the hiflory
cf Spain ; Mezeray and father Daniel that of
France ; Clarendon, in his hiftory of the civil
wars, left to England a monument of the misfor-
tunes of Charles I. whofe confidant he had been ;
Vv^areus gave a fliithful account of Ireland, his
native country, and Strada painted the revolu-
tions in Holland.
Literature, — In Italy, that fine literary tafte,
which had hitherto charadterifed its poetry, be-
gan to decline. The affedation of Marini re-
placed
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (521)
placed the noble fimplicity of Taflb, However,
TalToni's Rapeofthe Seal^ and the Court ofPar^
naffusy by Boccalini, are poenns conipofed in a
truly claffical tafte.
Spanifh literature alfo felt the falfe tafle
which prevailed in Italy. The poetry of that
country was only an allemblage of forced ima-
ges, and uncommon expreflions. Louis de
Gongora brought from Italy this vicious man-
ner of writing. The dramatic compofitions of
Lopez de Vega are very irregular, in which only
fome parts are worthy our admiration. Profe
was no lefs affeded with this general decline of
tafle. — The Spanifh profe waiters produced
fome romances, and nothing elfe. But the
original and ingenious fatire of Michael Cer-
vantes, fo well known by the name of Don
^iixoty is a compolition, in which ridicule is
carried to perfecftion.
In England, Waller cultivated poetry with
fuccefs. Cowley is admired for the delicacy and
fimplicity of his thoughts. — The fatires of Donn
are full of the force and fire of Juvenal. — Den-
ham compofed the poem oi Cooper HilL — Fair-
fax tranflated Taffo, and Harrington Ariofto. —
Ben Johnfon reformed the theatre, and Milton
created his immortal poem of Paradije Loft,- —
Dryden had a genius for every kind of poetry.
His works are, at once, both natural and brilli-
ant, full of humour, animated, vigorous, and
bold.
(522) MODERN HISTORY. Xect. IX.
bold. No Englilh poet is, perhaps, equal to
Dr)den, and he is furpafled by none of the
ancients. His tranflation of Virgil is, in the
ooinion of fome good judges, equal, if not
fuperior, to Pope's tranflation of Homer.
In France, the eflablifliment of the French
academy by Richelieu, tended to fix the (land-
ard of their hrsguage; though the firfl academi-
cians did not much improve it. Balfac created
profe,and bellowed upon itdignity and harmony.
Voiture, notwithfunding his afi^edled ftyle, fof-
tened the French language, by the addition of
many graces : it was embellifhed by the unaf-
fedted and delicate flyle of St. Evermond ; by
the tranflations of D'Ablancourt, by the ro-
mances of D'Urfe, and by the orations of
Patru. Malherbe continued to polifh the
French Poetry. Maynard fucceeded in madri-
gal, that is, a fpecics of love fongs. — Racan's
paftorals give us an idea of rural fimplicity ; the
language is adapted to the fubjed:, and his
thoughts are fimple and chafte. The efforts of
Rotrou, and others, could not eflablifh the re-
putation of the French drama. It was referved
to the genius of Peter Corneille to open a route,
to rufn all at once to the extremities of dramatic
compofition, to confound his rivals, and en-
chant the fpedlators. The Cid, the Horaiit,
Cinnay and his other plays, fixed the fuperiority
of the French theatre^ and covered Corneille
with
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (523)
with glory. Racine followed, fome of whofe
tragedies are the beft the French have. Moliere
excelled in comedy, and Boileau as a fatirift.
Fine Arls. — Guido and Albano continued to
form difciples in Italy ; and Salvator Rofa, and
others, fupported the glory of the fine arts.
The Flemilh fchool poiTelTed Rubens ; Van-
dyke, the fcholar of Rubens, excelled as a por-
trait painter; all his pidlures are mafterpieces ;
Rembrant, the magic of whofe colours altonilTi
thofe who view his paintings ; with many
others, whofe names are famous in the hiftory of
the fine arts.
The French fchool for painting made a bril-
liant figure in the feventeenth century. Vouet
raifed its reputation, and formed fcholars fupe-
rior to himfelf. Du Frefnoy, Mignard, Bour-
don, Le Brun, Le Sueur, Poufiin, acquired great
reputation in the art of painting, and difputed
the palm with the moil celebrated Italian
artifts.
In Britain, Inigo Jones, a Dane, excelled as
an architedl, and Sir Chriflopher Wren carried
this art to perfedlion. Heriot's hofpital, in
Edinburgh, is a fpecimen of the genius and
tafte of the former ; and St. Paul's church, and
the monument in London, are works, which
perpetuate the memory of the latter, and fhew
him to have been of great knowledge in archi-
l^efture, — Great improvements continued to be
made
(524) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. IX.
made in the art of engraving, fculpture, and
architecture, in almoll: every country of Europe,
during the feventeenth century, by the talents
and labours of ingenious men.
CONCLUSION.
In thefe Ledlures we have given the fpirit of
the general hiflory of fociety, as well religious
as civil, for the fpace of ten centuries. Our
aini has been, not to dwell upon the cominon
topics of hiftory, but to bring the reader ac-
quainted with the manners of mankind in the
different flages of fociety; to point out to him
the progrefs of the human mind, with the
caufes which retarded, or promoted, the civi-
lization of European nations. The arts which
enlighten and humanize men, began to revive
in the twelfth century ; but fuperflition flill
prevented their grovv^th and good eiiefe. The
Arabians helped to inftrudi: and retine a great
part of the world ; and when it was no longer
in their power Co do fo, the arts and fciences
Jivere revived in the fifteenth and lixteenth cen-
turies, and brought light and knowledge with
them. Then men began to think and a6l like
xeafonable creatures. It is much to be lament-
ed, that war fhould have raged in every period,
to the calamity and dellrucftion of the human
race ; that an oppofition of interefls, ambition,
and political intrigues Ihould have fet men at
variance.
Lect. IX. MODERN HISTORY. (52^)
variance, who ought to love one another. The
ambition of a defpot, the intrigues of a cabinet,
the hatred and envy of nations, have, even in
civilized times, defolated the earth. May
mortals no more feel the fcourge of war. — in
this enlightened age, may religion and learning
impart to the nations of Europe, a benevolent,
virtuous, and humane mind. When right
reafon has the afcendency in the human mind;
when Chriftianity is properly known, and its
precepts punctually attended to ; w hen the hu-
man mind becomes impreiTed With juft fenti-
ments of the rights of men, then, and not till
then, will freedom and happinefs prevail, and
every man will do to his neighbour, what he
w^ould have his neighbour do to him. But alas !
at prefent, a few only, comparatively fpeaking,
are enlightened, wife, and liberal ; the greatefl
number are ftill ignorant, intolerant and foolifh.
To rectify and improve the manners of foci-
ety, and to increafe the happinefs of men, is
much in the power of governments : and if
they do not this, they deferve not the name.
Vices indeed will be continually fpringing up,
and private intereft will be counteracl:ing the
public welfare. But if an enlightened and well
regulated government undertakes to reform,
and check vice; if laws, iimplc and impartial,
are put in force with firmnefs and humanity;
if thofc labours and purfuits which maintain
and
(526) MODERN HISTORY. Lect. 1X»
and inflrud: the people, are properly encoura«
ged ; if virtue and valuable talents meet uith
jufl efteem ; if the members of a ftate be form*
ed by a judicious and virtuous education, for
the different departments they are to fill ; if
youth is not wafted by thofe finful purfuits
which bring ruin on a nation ; we may venture
to affirm, that glory and happinefs will be the
confequence, in whatever part of the world it
fhall be put in execution.
Hiftory, therefore, fhould teach men to en-
deavour to remove thofe evils which are per-
nicious to fociety ; to corred: the faults of go-
vernment, and eftablifh public good upon a
right foundation. It fhould teach legiflators^
llatefmen and judges, to enad good laws, and
to put them vigoroufly and impartially in ex-
ecution. It fhould teach the clergy to promote,
by their dodlrine and example, the virtue and
happinefs of Chriftians. It fhould teach all
men, that perfedion is not to be found in this
life ; that gqod and evil are blended together ;
that we fhould patiently endure what we can-
not cure ; and that we fhould conftantly attend
to the difcharge of the focial duties, living in
peace with, and doing good, to all. — We pro-
mote our own welfare, when we confult the
welfare of our neighbour.
Afrer having made to pafs in review before
the reader, the many tyrants who opprefled the
earthy
Lect.IX. modern history. (527)
earth, the many madmen who laid it waile, the
many fanatics who have been deceived -, it may
be alked, of what advantage to mankind were the
conquefls of Clovis, the cunning of Mahomet,
the vi<5lories of Charlemagne, the invafion of
William the Norman, the valour of Godfrey
de Bouillon, the prudence of Rhodolph of Hapf-
burgh, the politics of Charles V. the ambition
of Philip II. and the genius of Richelieu. —
Their empires, their triumphs, their conquefls,
their politics ; thefe difappeared with them. The
violent fhocks they gave the world have fcarcely
left a trace behind. We contemplate with in-
finitely more pleafure the difcoveries of Vafco
de Gama and Columbus, the voyages of Ma-
gellan and Drake; the great changes which
the intrepidity of Luther and Calvin produced
in the politics and religions of Europe ; the
labours of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe, of
Kepler and Galileo, the works of Bacon, Def-
cartes, Newton and Locke ; the produdlions of
TalTo, Shakefpear, Ben Johnfon, and Dryden,
of Corneille, Raphael, and Michael Angelo.
The ftudy of religious truths, of the fciences,
arts, and Belles LettreSy have a more beneficial
influence upon the mind, and produce more
lafling effecfcs, than the mofl intimate acquaint-
ance with the conquefls, politics, and intrigues
of princes and flatefmen.
FINIS.
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